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Messerschmitt Bf 109A & B

Nazi flag Nazi Germany (1935)
Fighter Aircraft– 20 to 22 Bf 109A and 341 Bf 109B Built

When the Nazis came to power in Germany during the early 1930’s they sought to modernize their armed forces with more modern military equipment. The founding of a new air force, the Luftwaffe as it was known in Germany, was one of the main priorities of the new regime. Massive resources were channeled into the construction of a great number of airfields and other forms of infrastructure necessary for the air force. In addition, many new and thoroughly developed military aircraft designs were requested. Among these new designs was the Bf 109, which would go on to later become the most widely produced fighter aircraft in the world.

The Bf 109B (R. Jackson Messerschmitt Bf 109 A-D series)

Rise of the Luftwaffe

After the collapse of the German Empire following their defeat in the First World War, the Allies prohibited the development of many new military technologies, including aircraft. The Germans bypassed this prohibition by focusing on developing gliders which provided necessary initial work in aircraft development and crew training. Another solution was to develop civil aircraft that could be relatively quickly rebuilt and modified for military use. The efforts to hide these developments were finally discarded when the Nazis came to power in 1933.  One of the first steps that they undertook was to openly reject the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that prohibited the Germans to expand their army and develop new military technologies.

The founding of the Luftwaffe was seen as a huge military priority among Nazi officials. The Luftwaffe would then begin a massive reorganization and expansion project that would see it expand into a formidable fighting force. Much of the Luftwaffe’s attention and energy during this period was focused on developing a new fighter aircraft to replace the then obsolescent Ar 68 and He 51 biplanes. For this reason, in 1934 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium RLM (German Air Ministry) issued a competition for a new and modern fighter plane that could reach speeds of 400 km/h. For this competition, four companies were initially contacted including Arado, Focke-Wulf, and Heinkel. Besides them was a rather small and less-known manufacturer, Bayerische Flugzeugwerke BFW (Bavarian Aircraft Works,) which was under the leadership of Willy Messerschmitt. Despite lacking the experience of their contemporaries in military aviation designs, this small company despite its inexperience would go on to win the contract and build what would become Germany’s then-most modern combat aircraft

The man behind the design

Wilhelm Emil ‘Willy’ Messerschmitt was from his early years interested in aviation. When he was 13, he met Friedrich Harth who was an enthusiast and a pioneering glider designer. He would become a mentor and help Messerschmitt develop his passion for building gliders,  together designing and building several gliders. When the First World War broke out in 1914, Harth was drafted into the Army, and in 1917 Messerschmitt would follow. Fortunately for both of them, however, they were stationed at the same flight training school near Munich and were thus able to continue their work. Both of them survived the war and went back to doing what they both loved: designing and building gliders. As gliding was something that became highly popular in Germany after the war, Messerschmitt undertook further education by enrolling in Munich Technical College. With this knowledge, Messerschmitt managed to design and build his first glider in 1921, which he designated simply as S9. After gathering sufficient financial resources, Messerschmitt and Harth together opened a flying school in 1922. This did not last long, however, and the following year disagreements between Messerschmitt and Harth arose.

Messerschmitt then decided to work on his own and opened a small aviation company which he named Flugzeugbau Messerschmitt. His first proper aircraft design was the M17. It was a small all-wood, high-wing, sport aircraft powered by a British Bristol 29 hp engine. This aircraft was quite successful and even managed a 14-hour flight from Bamberg to Rome in 1926. The pilot was a World War One veteran Theodor Croneiss. A little-known fact, this was actually the first flight of such a small aircraft over the Alps ever attempted successfully. The M17 would later be lost in an accident when Messerschmitt himself was learning how to fly an aircraft. He crashed, losing the aircraft but surviving the hard landing, after which Messerschmitt spent some time in hospital. This did not greatly affect Messerschmitt’s new company as his next design M18 also proved to have good overall performance. Now in partnership with Croneiss, they managed to make a deal with Lufthansa, a German civil airline, to use the M18 for passenger transport.

The high wing, sport aircraft M17, was the first Messerschmitt aircraft design. (www.histaviation.com)

Messerschmitt’s company received a number of production orders for their M18 aircraft. However, Messerschmitt lacked the money, resources, and production capabilities to actually deliver these aircraft. At some point, he came in contact with the Bavarian government in hope of finding a solution to his problem. He got an answer, that the Bavarian government was willing to help with one condition, Messerschmitt would have to merge his own company with the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke BFW. This company itself was in the midst of a huge financial crisis but possessed a great number of skilled workers and equipment that could greatly help Messerschmitt in his future work. While both companies would be technically independent, Messerschmitt was to give first production rights for any of his new designs to BFW. BFW on the other hand would provide the necessary manpower and equipment. Messerschmitt agreed to this condition and was positioned as chief designer of both companies. Representation of the company was relocated from Bamberg to Ausburg.

In 1928 Messerschmitt focused his work on a civil design intended for transporting passengers. His next design was the 10-passenger transport aircraft designated M20. During a flight test, part of the wing fabric cover peeled away, and pilot Hans Hackman possibly in a panic decided to bail out at a height of 76 m. His parachute failed to open properly and he died. This led to the cancellation of production orders for the M20 by Lufthansa. Messerschmitt developed an improved second M20 prototype which was presented to, and tested by Lufthansa officials.  After an evaluation, the aircraft was deemed safe and a production order for 12 improved M20. However, tragedy would strike in two serious accidents involving the M20 aircraft, in which 10 people were killed. The first accident happened near Dresden in October 1930, where two pilots and six crew members were killed. The second occurred in April of the next year, with the death of both pilots. To make matters even worse, German Army officers were among the casualties. This affected Messerschmitt’s further work, who despite developing more aircraft designs failed to gain many production orders for them. While his own company did not suffer much, BFW was not so lucky and was forced into bankruptcy in 1931. In the next few years, Messerschmitt’s work was relatively stable as he saw some success selling his aircraft aboard. With better financing, he managed to acquire sufficient funds to reinstate BFW in May of 1933. The name was changed to BFW AG, a publicly-traded company. Unfortunately for Messerschmitt, a newly appointed Secretary of State for Air, Erhard Milch, opposed the idea of BFW operating under Messerschmitt. Erhard Milch’s hatred for Messerschmitt was personal, as the test pilot who flew on the doomed M20 prototype was his friend. He never forgave Messerschmitt who he deemed responsible for the accident. He forced  BFW AG to accept production orders for Heinkel aircraft designs. This was also partly done to provide adequate financial resources so that the company could operate successfully.

Despite this distrust by Nazi officials, Messerschmitt was contacted in the summer of 1933 by the RLM to design a sports aircraft to represent Germany on the Challenge de Tourisme Internationale. Seeing a new opportunity Messerschmitt took great care in fulfilling this order. His ultimate design would be the highly successful Bf 108 (initially designated M37.) This aircraft would be crucial in the later stages of Bf 109 development. With the success of the Bf 108, Messerschmitt managed to gain support from some top Luftwaffe officials. One of these was the newly appointed Hermann Goring who replaced Erhard Milch in the position of commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe. While there were still some who wanted the Bf 108 to be canceled, with the support of Hermann Goring they could do little about it.

The highly successful Bf 108. (www.luftwaffephotos.com)

A new fighter

In March of 1933 RLM issued a document (designated L.A. 1432/33) that laid the foundations for the development of the future German fighter aircraft. In it a shortlist of general characteristics that this aircraft should meet was given. It was to be designed as a single-seat fighter that must be able to reach speeds of at least 400 km/h at a height of 6 km. In addition, that height had to be reached in no more than 17 minutes. The maximum service ceiling was set at 10 km. Armament was to consist of either two machine guns each supplied with 1,000 rounds of ammunition or one cannon with 100 rounds of ammunition.

In February 1934 this document was given to three aircraft manufacturers, with these being Arado Heinkel and BFW AG. The last to enter the competition was Focke-Wulf who received this document in September of 1934. While not completely clear as some sources suggest, Messerschmitt and the BFW AG were not initially contacted but were later included in this competition. Realizing this competition as a great opportunity, Messerschmitt gathered the best team he could find. Some of these included the former Arado fighter designer Walther Rethal, who became Messerschmitt’s deputy. Another prominent figure was Robert Lusser who took a great part in the Bf 108 development. He would also later play a great part in the future Bf 110 aircraft design.

According to RLM conditions, all interested companies were to provide a working prototype that was to be tested before a final decision was to be made. Arado and Focke-Wulf completed their prototypes, the Ar 80 and Fw 159, by the end of 1934. Heinkel and Messerschmitt’s prototypes took a bit longer to complete. Messerschmitt and his team set a simple but ambitious plan. Their aircraft would be simple, cheap, and possess lightweight overall construction. It was to be powered by the strongest engine they could get their hands on. Work on this new fighter began in March 1934, at this early stage, the project was designated as P.1034 (while sometimes in the sources it is also mentioned as Bf 109a). A simple airframe mock-up was completed shortly in May the same year, but the work on a more complex and detailed mock-up took some time. By January 1935 it was finally ready. The engine chosen for it was the Jumo 210A. As this engine was not yet available, the license-built 583 hp Rolls-Royce Kestrel engine was used temporarily instead. Ironically this engine was available thanks to the good business relationship between Heinkel and the British Rolls Royce motor company. Thanks to this cooperation the Germans managed to purchase a number of these engines.

The first prototype named Bf 109 V1 (registered as D-IABI) was flight tested by Hans Dietrich Knoetzsch at the end of May 1935. The first flight was successful as no problems were identified with the design. While later prototypes would be tested with a weapon installation, the V1 was not outfitted with any armament.

The Bf 109 V1 (registered as D-IABI). (www.asisbiz.com)

Messerschmitt designation

Before we continue, it is important to clarify the precise designation of this aircraft. Sometimes it is referred to as Me 109 (or as Me-109). While technically speaking this is not completely incorrect given that it was designed by Messerschmitt and his team. The Bf stands for Bayerische Flugzeugwerke, the company which constructed the aircraft. While the 109 has no specific meaning, it was just next in the line after the 108 design.

In 1938 this company would be renamed Messerschmitt AG and all future designs from this point on would receive the prefix ‘Me’. The older designs including the 108 and 109 would retain the Bf prefix during the war. It is worth pointing out that both the Bf and Me designation was used in Messerschmitt’s own archives. In German service prior to and during the war, it was not uncommon to see both designations being used. So using either of these two designations would be historically accurate, this article would use the Bf 109 designation for sake of simplicity but also due to the fact that in most sources this designation was used.

The Bf 109 trials

As no major issue was noted in its design, the Bf 109 V1 was to be transported to the test centers located at Rechlin and Travemunde starting in October 1935. Here, together with all competitor designs, they would be subjected to a series of evaluations and tests. The Ar 80 and Fw 159 proved inadequate almost from the start after many mechanical breakdowns and even crashes, which ultimately led to both being rejected. The He 112 and Bf 109 on the other hand proved to be more promising designs. The Bf 109 had a somewhat bumpy start as the Rechlin airfield was unfinished and had a rough runway. During a landing, one of the Bf 109’s landing gear collapsed. Despite what appeared at first glance to be catastrophic damage, turned out to be only minor.

The He 112 V1, was used for the trials held at Rechlin and Travemunde. (www.luftwaffephotos.com)
The Bf 109V1 was damaged during a failed landing. (R. Jackson Messerschmitt Bf 109 A-D series)

The second prototype was completed and tested by the end of 1935. The V2 (D-IILU or D-IUDE according to some sources) was powered by a domestically developed 680 hp Jumo 210A engine. It was moved to Travemunde for evaluation and testing in February 1936. The V2 was put into a series of test flights where it showed superb flying performance, in contrast to the other competitors. Unfortunately, during one test flight undertaken in April, part of the pilot’s canopy peeled away, forcing the pilot to make an emergency landing. A decision was made to not repair this prototype but instead to use its fuselage for ground testing and experimentation.

That same month that the V2 was damaged, the V3 (D-IQQY) was flight tested. This prototype served as the test aircraft for the installation of offensive armament. There is a disagreement between sources, as J. R. Beaman and J. L. Campbell mentioned that the armament was actually tested on the V2 aircraft. Regardless of which prototype was first armed, it possessed two 7.92 mm MG 17 machine guns. These were placed above the engine, close to the cockpit. The engine was once again changed, this time with the installation of the even more powerful 700 hp Jumo 210C. Another experimental feature was the installation of a FuG 7 radio unit. This necessitated adding a triple wire antenna, which was connected to the top of the fin, and the edges of the stabilizers to the cockpit. This aircraft would be extensively used for testing, and would later serve as the basis for the first production version. Later prototypes were used to test various additional equipment and weapon installations.  For example, prototypes V4 to V7 were used to test various different armament arrangements. The V5 was used to test the installation of an automatic reload and firing system, among other features.

The V3 in a flight. (en.topwar.ru)

During the initial evaluation flights carried out on both the Bf 109 and He 112, the latter was favored by many test pilots. Heinkel at that time was among the largest and most well-known German aviation manufacturers. It supplied the new Luftwaffe with a series of aircraft, and thus was well connected to RLM top officials. Further examination of the Bf 109 showed that the aircraft had several persistent issues. The most serious problems were the Bf 109’s tendency to widely swing to the left during landing and take-off. Another major issue was the design of landing gear, which was too narrow and generally weak. This in turn would often lead to crash landings. In retrospect, these two problems would never be fully resolved, but with sufficient training and experience, these problems could be overcome by the pilots. Other complaints included the limited visibility due to the canopy’s small design. The cockpit interior was also regarded as too cramped. The Bf 109 was also notorious for its high wing loading, which was pointed out by the test pilots.

Most of these complaints do not necessarily indicate a flawed design.  We must take into account that the test pilots were mostly experienced in older biplanes. This new single-wing fighter concept was completely strange to them. For example, the biplanes had a simple and open cockpit, so complaints regarding the Bf 109 cockpit design represented a refusal to adapt to newer technologies rather than a bad design.

During the series of test flights, the performance of the two competitors was quite similar, with some minor advantages between them. In the case of the Bf 109, it was slightly faster, while the He 112 had lower wing loading. In addition, the He 112 had a better-designed and safer landing gear assembly. As the He 112 had to be constantly modified in order to keep pace with the Bf 109, the RLM commission was getting somewhat frustrated. Despite Heinkel’s connections and experience in designing aircraft, the Bf 109 was simply more appealing to the RLM commission, given that it was simpler, faster, and could be put into production relatively quickly. At that time the Germans were informed by the Abwehr intelligence service that the British were developing and preparing for the production of the new Spitfire. RLM officials were simply not willing to risk taking a chance on an aircraft design that could not quickly be put into production. Thus the Bf 109 was seen as the better choice under the circumstances.

Technical characteristics

The Bf 109 was a low-wing, all-metal construction, single-seat fighter. In order to keep the production of this aircraft as simple as possible, Messerschmitt engineers decided to develop a monocoque fuselage that was divided into two halves. These halves would be placed together and connected using simple flush rivets, thus creating a simple base on which remaining components, like the engine, wings, and instruments would be installed.

The central part of the fuselage was designed to be especially robust and strong. Thanks to this, it offered the aircraft exceptional structural integrity. It also provided additional protection during emergency crash landings. The fuselage itself and the remainder of the aircraft were covered with standard duralumin skin.

Its wings also had an unusual overall design. In order to provide room for the retracting landing gear, Messerschmitt intentionally used only a single wing spar which was positioned quite to the rear of the wing. This spar had to be sufficiently strong to withstand the load forces that acted on the wings during flight. The wings were connected to the fuselage by four strong bolts. This design enables the wings to have a rather simple overall construction with the added benefit of being cheap to produce. During the Bf 109 later service life, the damaged wings could be simply replaced with others on hand. The wings were also very thin, which provided the aircraft with better overall control at lower speeds but also reduced drag which in turn increased the overall maximum speed. At the wing’s leading edge were slats that automatically opened to provide better handling during maneuvers at lower speeds. This had a secondary purpose to greatly help the pilot during landing. The tail unit of the Bf 109 was a conventional design and was also built using metal components. It consists of a fin with a rudder, and two vertical stabilizers each equipped with an elevator.

The cockpit was placed in the center of the fuselage. It was a fully enclosed compartment that was riveted to the fuselage. The Bf 109 cockpit itself was quite cramped. Most of the available space was allocated to the control stick. Left and right of the pilot were two smaller control panels with the main instrumental panel being placed in front of him. While the side control panels were a bit small, their overall design was more or less the standard arrangement used on other aircraft. The front instrumental panel contained various equipment such as the compass, and an artificial horizon indicator. Messerschmitt engineers also added an ammunition counter, which was somewhat unusual on German fighters. Another innovative feature was the installation of a FuG 7 radio unit. In front of the cockpit, a firewall was positioned to shield the pilot in case of an engine fire.

The overall framework for the canopy was fairly small, but despite this provided decent all-around visibility for the pilot. Its main drawback was limited forward visibility during take-off. The canopy opened outwards to the right. This was a major issue as it could not be open during the flight. To overcome this, it was designed to be relatively easily jettisoned. In case of emergency, the pilot would actuate a lever positioned in the rear. It was connected to two high-tension springs. When activated, the lever would release the two springs, which in turn released the canopy, which would then simply fly away due to airflow.

The Bf 109 canopy opens outwards to the right, this causes problems as it was unable to be open during the ground drive or in flight. (R. Jackson Messerschmitt Bf 109 A-D series)

When designing the Bf 109 great care was taken for it to have a simple design. This is especially true for the engine compartment. The engine was easily accessible by simply removing a series of panels. The engine was mounted on two long ‘Y’ shaped metal bars and held in place by two quick-release screws. The necessary electrical wires were connected to a junction box which was placed to the rear of the engine. All parts inside the engine compartment were easily accessible and thus could be replaced in a short period of time.  The Bf 109 “L” shaped fuel tank was located aft of the pilot’s seat and slightly underneath it. It too had easy access by simply removing a cover located inside the center of the wing. The total fuel capacity was 250 liters.

Once the Bf 109 was accepted for service, a small production run of the Bf 109B-0 was completed. It was powered by a 610 hp Jumo 210B, and served mainly to finalize the later production version. The Bf 109B-1 was powered by a 635 hp Jumo 210D engine and had a fixed-pitch two-blade wooden propeller. Later during the production, it would be replaced with a new all-metal two-bladed variable pitch propeller. This engine was equipped with a two-stage supercharger. The maximum speed achieved with this engine at the height of 3,350 meters (11,000 ft) was 450 km/h (280 mph). The engine oil cooler, which was initially placed close to the radiator assembly, would be repositioned under the right wing.

The Bf 109 had a simple engine housing that could be easily removed if the engine needed to be removed. (R. Cross, G. Scarborough, and H. J. Ebert (Messerschmitt Bf 109 Versions B-E)

The Bf 109 possessed quite an unusual landing gear arrangement. The landing gear was mainly connected to the lower center base of the fuselage, which meant that the majority of the weight of the aircraft would be centered at this point. The two landing gear struts retracted outward towards the wings. The negative side of this design was that the Bf 109, due to its rather narrow wheel track, could be quite difficult to control during taxiing. Messerschmitt engineers tried to resolve this issue by increasing the span of the two wheels. This actually complicated the matter as it necessitated that the two wheels be put at an angle. In turn, this created a weak point where the wheels were connected to the gear strut, which could easily break during a harsh landing.  This also caused problems with the Bf 109 tendency to swing to the side prior to take-off. When the pilot was making corrections to keep the aircraft headed straight, excessive force could be applied to the pivot point of the landing gear leg, which sometimes cracked.

The Bf 109 possessed a quite unusual landing gear that retracted outward towards the wings. (www.worldwarphotos.info)

The first series of the Bf 109 were only lightly armed, with two 7.92 mm electrically primed MG 17 machine guns. While this may seem like underpowered armament, we must not forget that in the period between the wars, mounting larger caliber guns in fighters was rare. Larger calibers at this time used were usually 12.7 mm. The two machine guns were placed in the upper fuselage, just forward of the cockpit. The port-side machine gun was slightly more forward than the starboard. This was done to provide more space for ammunition magazines. These were fully synchronized to be able to fire through the propellers without damaging them. In the early stages, the ammunition load consisted of 500 rounds for each machine gun, but this was later increased to 1,000 rounds.

The MG 17 was used as the main armament of the early Bf 109’s. (airpages.ru)

However, the double MG 17 layout was eventually deemed somewhat weak, so Messerschmitt was instructed to increase the offensive firepower. As Messerschmitt initially did not want to add any armament in the wings, another solution was needed. The installation of a third machine gun inside the centerline of the engine block was tested. While this would be initially adopted, this installation proved to be problematic mostly due to overheating and jamming problems. So this machine gun was often not installed and removed on those aircraft that had it. A possible installation of a 20 mm cannon in its place was also tested. This was the 20 mm MG FF cannon, which was in fact a license-built version of the Swiss Oerlikon cannon. While it was tested on a few prototypes, it too proved unusable due to excessive vibration. On the other hand, the installation of two non-synchronized machine guns in the wings proved to be more promising, and this was implemented and installed on the later Bf 109E.  For the reflector gunsight, a Revi C/12C type was used.

Main armament side view. (Bf 109B LDv.228-1 Document)
The left machine gun was slightly moved forward in order to avoid problems with ammunition supply. (Bf 109B LDv.228-1 Document)

The Bf 109A and B versions

The Bf 109 A version is somewhat of a mystery in the sources. Usually this version, besides a few mentions, is rarely described in the sources. According to Messerschmitt’s own documents, a small series of 20 to at least 22 aircraft of this version were built. It appears that in every aspect, it was the same as the later B version. The only major difference between these two versions was that the A was solely equipped with the two machine guns in the upper engine cowling.

This is probably why most sources barely mentioned the A version, likely lumping them in with the B version. To further complicate matters author D. Nesić mentioned that while version A was planned to enter production, it was abandoned due to its weak armament.

Once the Bf 109 was accepted for service, a small pre-production run of 10 Bf 109B-0 was completed. It was powered by a 610 hp Jumo 210B, and served mainly to finalize the later production version. The Bf 109B-1 was powered by a 635hp Jumo 210D engine. This engine was fitted with a fixed-pitch two-blade wooden propeller. It was armed with three machine guns, with two placed above the engine compartment, and the third fired through the centerline of the engine and propeller hub. During the production run of the B-1, some minor changes were introduced. The three-wire radio antennas were replaced with a single one. To provide better cooling of the machine guns, several vent ports were added. The Bf 109B-1 was then replaced with the Bf 109B-2. The 109B-2 was initially powered by a 640 hp Jumo 210E but was replaced with a stronger 670 hp Jumo 210G. The wooden propeller was upgraded to a new completely metal, variable-pitch, two-bladed propeller.

During early production, three-wire radio antennas were used. These would be replaced with a single one. (www.luftwaffephotos.com)

While at first glance, the infamous Bf 109 seems to be a well-documented aircraft, this is not quite the case. Namely, there are significant differences in the sources regarding the precise designation of the B series. For example sources like R. Jackson (Messerschmitt Bf 109 A-D series) and J. R. Smith and A. L. Kay (German Aircraft of the WW2) divided the B series into three sub-series: the B-0, B-1, and B-2.

On the other hand sources like  R. Cross, G. Scarborough and  H. J. Ebert (Messerschmitt Bf 109 Versions B-E) mentioned that in the Messerschmitt archives, no evidence for the existence of a B-2 series was found. In addition, while the Jumo 210G may have been tested on the Bf 109B series, there is also little evidence that it was actually installed in them. This is also supported by sources like Lynn R. (Messerschmitt Bf 109 Part-1: Prototype). This particular source indicated that all alleged modifications to the B-2 were actually implemented on the B-1 aircraft.

Early Bf 109 operational use

The Bf 109 was shown to the general public for the first time during the 1936 Olympic Games held in Germany. The following year several Bf 109’s (including the V10, V13, two B-1, and one B-2) participated in the international flying competition held in Zurich, Switzerland, easily winning several awards including fastest dive, climbing, and flew a circuit of the Alps, etc. The event was not without incident, as the Bf 109 V10 had an engine problem, and its pilot Ernst Udet, was forced to crash land it.

In Spain

When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Francisco Franco, who was the leader of the Nationalists, sent a plea to Adolf Hitler for German aid in providing military equipment including aircraft. At the early stages of the war, nearly all of Spain’s mostly outdated aircraft were in the hands of the Republicans. To make matters worse for Franco nearly all forces loyal to him were stationed in Africa. As the Republicans controlled the Spanish navy, Franco could not move his troops back to Spain safely. Franco was therefore forced to seek foreign aid. Hitler, seeing Spain as a potential ally, was keen on helping Franco and agreed to provide assistance. At the end of July 1936, some 86 aircrew personnel, together with 6 He 51 and 20 Ju 57 were secretly transported to Spain. This air unit would serve as the basis of the so-called German Condor Legion which operated in Spain during the war. The Ju 52 transport aircraft proved instrumental in transporting the Francoist forces to Spain. The operation was a success, but the enemy was quite busy with their own preparations.

On the other side, the Republicans were greatly supported by the Soviets, providing them with some 30 I-15 fighters in late 1936. Additionally, the Republicans operated a number of Soviet SB-2 bombers. The few He 51 fighters of the Condor Legion were outdated and outnumbered by the enemy air force, so a request was made to send additional and more modern aircraft. Seeing an opportunity to test the performance of the Bf 109 in real combat situations, it was agreed to send a few to Spain. One of the first Bf 109 V4 to be sent to Spain was unfortunately damaged in an accident. Several delays later on the 14th of December, the Bf 109 V3 arrived in Spain. These arriving aircraft were initially used for a few weeks for testing and training. Initial evaluation of these early aircraft proved to be more than satisfactory, and additional aircraft of this type was requested. Besides the V3 and V4, the V6 was also sent to Spain. The fate of the V5 is not clear; some sources mentioned (like R. Jackson) that it was also used in the Spanish Theater. Lynn R. (Messerschmitt Bf 109 Part-1: Prototype) on the other hand informs us that the V5 was used during 1937 for weapon trials and thus not sent to Spain.

In early 1937 the first of the Bf 109s began to arrive. It is unclear which exact version was first issued for service, these were either version A or B. Author  Lynn R. ( Messerschmitt Bf 109 Part-1: Prototype) mentioned that the first aircraft used were of the A version. He indicated that this was the case for several reasons, one of which was the use of only two machine guns. In addition, these were not equipped with the later-developed automatic cycling gun mechanism, which alleviated ammunition jam and misfeed issues.  In total, at least 16 aircraft of the early Bf 109 would be sent in this shipment. Sources like R. Jackson (Messerschmitt Bf 109 A-D series) mentioned that only the B version was used in Spain.

During the Spanish Civil war, initially only smaller quantities of Bf 109A and B were available for service. (me109.airwar1946.nl)

In March 1937, with the arrival of the first group of the new Bf 109, two fighter groups were formed. These were the I and II/Jagdgruppe J.88 under the command of Lieutenant Günther Lützow. Interestingly, these aircraft were initially to be given to JG 132 stationed at Döberitz-Elsgrund. Due to the urgent need to reinforce the Condor Legion, JG 132 pilots with the Bf 109 were transported to Spain instead. Besides markings, they also received numerical designations beginning with 6-1, 6-2, and so on. The precise method which was used to determine the numbering designation is not clear. For example, the V3, which arrived second, received the 6-2, and later 6-1 designation. The Bf 109 that served with the Condor Legion received a large black circle on the fuselage for identification. Two additional black circles with a large white “X” were painted on the wings. An additional black X was painted on the rear tail.

The Bf 109 that saw service during the Spanish Civil War could be easily distinguished by their unique markings. Those received a large black circle marking on the fuselage. Two additional black circles with a large white “X” were painted on the wings. An additional black X was painted on the rear tail. ( www.luftwaffephotos.com)

Initially, it was planned that the Germans would act as instructors for their Spanish allies. As the Spanish had problems piloting the newly supplied aircraft, many German instructors would themselves see extensive combat action during the war.

Lützow was also the one who achieved the first kill of the Bf 109B that was used in Spain. He managed to shoot down a Republican I-15 on the 6th of April 1937. Three more victories were achieved during that month. At the end of April, the II.J/88 provided protection for bombers that raided the small town of Guernica. Initially, the few Bf 109 that were available did not have much effect on the war efforts of the Nationalists. The Republicans had nearly 150 modern Soviet fighters and thus had a clear advantage. During the heavy fighting at Madrid in July 1937, the Bf 109 engaged the enemy I-16’s for the first time in the conflict.

In July of 1937, a Bf 109 from the II.J/88, managed to shoot down three SB-2 bombers, one Aero A.101 light bomber, and three I-16. But the J.88 also suffered its first casualty of the war, a Bf 109B which was piloted by Guido Honess was shot down by an I-16 on the 12th of July. On the 17th, another Bf 109 was shot down but the pilot Gotthard Handrick managed to survive. The next day, another Bf 109 was lost but the pilot was only lightly wounded.

In August 1937, the Nationalists launched an offensive toward Republican-held positions around Santander. The heavy fighting that lasted up to October saw extensive use of air forces on both sides. The Nationalists were reinforced with the I.J/88 under the command of Harro Harder. By late October this commander managed to bring down 7 enemy aircraft. At the end of 1937, an incident of note occurred where a Bf 109A piloted by Otto Polenz was forced to land on Republican-held territory. His aircraft was captured almost intact and shipped to the Soviet Union for examination. During the German Invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, this particular aircraft would be recaptured.

The captured Bf 109A was shipped to the Soviet Union for examination. Ironically it would be recaptured by the Germans in 1941. (Lynn R. (1980) Messerschmitt Bf 109 Part-1: Prototype to ‘E’ Variants, SAM Publication)

On the 16th of December, the Republicans launched an offensive toward the city of Teruel. Given the severe winter, the J.88 was unable to provide air support and the city fell to the Republicans.  From late January and early February on, thanks to better weather, the German Bf 109s were once again active. On the 7th of February 1938, Wilhelm Balthasar managed to alone shoot down four SB-2 bombers alone during one flight. He too was forced to a harsh landing having received numerous hits by the bomber’s defensive fire, but Balthasar survived the landing.

By April 1938 the Nationalists realized that a direct attack on Madrid would be almost impossible without heavy casualties, and decided on another approach. They instead focused on the southern parts of Spain. The J.88 too was repositioned there and took on the enemy aircraft. Several Bf 109s were lost during this time, but most of these were either to mechanical breakdowns or pilot errors. For example, on one occasion two Bf 109s collided in midair on the 4th of April. While one pilot was killed, the second managed to escape by using a parachute. The following month saw extensive fighting on the ground and in the air. The Bf 109 pilots, thanks to their better machines and experience, achieved a series of victories over their opponents. On one occasion in late July 1938, three squadrons of Bf 109 took on a group of 40 I-15 and I-16. After a long engagement, the enemy lost six planes, while the Nationalists lost none. The Germans pilots were achieving so many victories that they had to invent excuses in order to not be sent back to Germany. According to official regulations, once a pilot had achieved 5 kills, he was to be replaced by another pilot. This regulation was clearly ignored as pilots like Werner Molders achieved some 14 victories. Other pilots were also very successful, Otto Bertram achieved four victories during August. While Werner Molders scored 8 victories through this period. During 1938, an additional 26 Bf 109B-1 with coded numbers, ranging from 6-19 to 6-45 arrived in Spain.

By early 1939, the Nationalists managed to gain almost complete air supremacy, thus air to air combat became a rare event.  The J.88 aircraft were from this point on mostly used for ground attack operations. The last J.88 air victory of the war was achieved on the 5th of March when an I-15 was shot down. Out of some 130 Bf 109s that saw service in Spain, between 20 to 40 aircraft were lost (depending on the source). Not all were lost in air combat, most were lost due to mechanical breakdowns, pilot errors, or hard landings.

While the Republicans would fly in loose formations with any proper tactics, the Germans would employ a so-called Schwarm (swarm) tactic. This basically consisted of using a group of four aircraft, which would fly in a reverse ‘V’ shaped formation, with some 200 meters separating each aircraft. When attacking, these would be divided into two groups of two aircraft. Which were intended to provide each other with cover in the event enemy fighters gave chase.

In German Service

While the Bf 109 was initially used for various tests and participated in sporting events, these aircraft were soon allocated to Luftwaffe units. The first such unit to receive the Bf 109 B-1 was the Jagdgeschwader (fighter squadron) JG 132 in February of 1937, being supplied with 25 aircraft. Due to some delays in production, the second unit equipped with the Bf 109, II./JG 234, was formed nearly nine months later. In early 1938, the production of the Bf 109 was greatly increased which provided a sufficient number of aircraft to equip additional units.

The early Bf 109s were prepared to see potential action during the political crisis regarding the German relationship with Austria and later Czechoslovakia. Even by the end of 1937, the pressure on Austrian politicians was great as the Germans wanted to install a more friendly government. All these political machinations ended in March 1938 when German troops entered Austria without any resistance.

The German request for territories belonging to Czechoslovakia was initially met with fierce resistance from the Western Allies, France, and the United Kingdom. These tensions could have easily cascaded into open war. This particularly caused huge concern in the RLM, as the German Air Force was not yet ready for a war. The situation was so desperate that even some He 112 were accepted for service. In the end, the Western Allies backed down, not willing to go to war, and allowed the Germans to take disputed Czechoslovakian territory.

As the new and improved models of the C and D versions began to be available, the Bf 109B were slowly being allocated to secondary roles, such as training. In this role, some would survive up to 1943. By the time of the invasion of Poland in September, the majority of Bf 109 in use were the D version, with ever-increasing numbers of the new E version. While some Bf 109B were still present in frontline units, their fighting days were over.

Production

For the upcoming Bf 109 production, initially BFW AG was responsible. As it lacked production capabilities given that it was already under contract (made earlier with RLM) to build several other aircraft types, another solution was needed. When BFW AG completed all previously ordered aircraft, it was to focus its production capabilities on the Bf 109.

To increase overall Bf 109 production, other manufacturers were also contracted. Some 175 were built at Erla Maschinenwerk from Leipzig, with 90 more by Fieseler, and only 76 aircraft by BFW. The production run of the Bf 109A lasted from December 1936 to February 1937.  In 1937 some 341 Bf 109B would be built.

Production Versions

  • Bf 109 V –  Prototypes series aircraft
  • Bf 109 A –  Proposed production version built in small numbers
  • Bf 109 B-0 – A small pre-production series
    • Bf 109 B-1 –  Production version
    • Bf 109 B-2 –  Slightly improved B-1 version incorporating a new propeller. Note that the existence of this particular version is disputed in sources.

Surviving Aircraft

Today only one Bf 109B-0 V-10 is known to have survived. Given its rather low production numbers, this is not surprising. It is in a private collection of the “Bayerische Flugzeug Historiker” Oberschleissheim in Munich, Germany.

Conclusion

Despite focusing mainly on civilian aircraft, Messerchmitt and his team of engineers managed to design a fighter that bested all the other well-established manufacturers for Luftwaffe’s new fighter program. The Bf 109 was inexpensive to build and possessed good overall flight capabilities. While a good design, there was plenty of room for improvement, mainly regarding its armament and engine, which would be greatly improved in subsequent iterations.

Me 109B-1 Specifications

Wingspans 9.9 m / 32  ft 4  in
Length 8.7 m / 28  ft 6 in
Height 2.45 m / 8 ft
Wing Area 16.4 m² /  174 ft²
Engine Jumo 210D
Empty Weight 1,580 kg / 3,483 lbs
Maximum Takeoff Weight 1,955 kg / 4,310 lbs
Maximum Speed 450 km/h / 280 mph
Cruising speed 350 km/h / 220 mph
Range 690 km / 430 miles
Maximum Service Ceiling 8,200 m
Crew 1 pilot
Armament
  • Initially three 7.92 mm MG 17 machine guns, later changed to four same type machine guns

Illustrations

Credits

  • Written by Marko P.
  • Edited by Stan L. Henry H.
  • Illustrations by Hansclaw

Source

  • D. Nesić  (2008)  Naoružanje Drugog Svetsko Rata-Nemačka. Beograd.
  • D. Monday (2006) The Hamlyn Concise Guide To Axis Aircraft OF World War II, Bounty Books.
  • R. Jackson (2015) Messerschmitt Bf 109 A-D series, Osprey Publishing
  • J. R. Smith and A. L. Kay (1972) German Aircraft of the WW2, Putham
  • R. Cross, G. Scarborough and  H. J. Ebert (1972) Messerschmitt Bf 109 Versions B-E Airfix Products LTD.
  • J. R. Beaman and J. L. Campbell (1980) Messerschmitt Bf 109 in action Part-1, Squadron publication
  • Lynn R. (1980) Messerschmitt Bf 109 Part-1: Prototype to ‘E’ Variants, SAM Publication
  • http://www.warbirdsresourcegroup.org/LRG/luftwaffe_messerschmitt_bf109.html

 

Heinkel He 112 In Romanian Service

Kingdom of Romania (1935)

Fighter aircraft

Number operated: 31

Romanian operated He 112s. (http://www.luftwaffephotos.com)

During the 1930’s the Aeronautica Regală Română ARR (Romanian Royal Aeronautics or Airforce) was in great need of more modern aircraft design. Their fighter force was poorly equipped with obsolete aircraft such as the PZL P.11 and P.24, being of dated Polish origin. Thus the Romanians were in desperate need of better designs. Luckily for them, the Heinkel factory was more than willing to supply them with one of their failed competitors for the new German fighter, the He 112. The Romanians were impressed and placed an order for 30 such aircraft which would remain in use up to 1946.

A brief He 112 history

Prior to the Second World War, the Luftwaffe was in need of a new and modern fighter that was to replace the older biplane fighters that were in service, such as the Arado Ar 68 and Heinkel He 51. For this reason, in May 1934 the RLM issued a competition for a new and modern fighter plane. While four companies responded to this request, only the designs from Heinkel and Messerschmitt were deemed sufficient. The Heinkel He 112 was a good design that offered generally acceptable flight characteristics and possessed a good basis for further improvements. The Bf 109 on the other hand had slightly better overall flight performance and was much simpler and cheaper to build. Given the fact that the Germans were attempting to accelerate the production of the new fighter, this was seen as a huge advantage over the He 112. Ultimately it would not be accepted for service, and only 100 or so aircraft would be built. These would be mainly sold abroad, with those remaining in Germany used for various testing and evaluation purposes.

He 112 the unsuccessful competitor of the Bf 109. Source: (luftwaffephotos.com)

He 112 the unsuccessful competitor of the Bf 109. Source: http://www.luftwaffephotos.com/#fightermenu https://imgur.com/a/hl8lTvp

While the He 112 project was canceled by the RLM, to compensate for the huge investment in resources and time to it, Heinkel was permitted to export this aircraft. A number of countries such as Austria, Japan, Romania, and Finland showed interest, but only a few actually managed to procure this aircraft, and even then, only in limited numbers.

Technical Characteristics

The He 112 was an all-metal single-engine fighter. The monocoque fuselage consisted of a metal base covered by riveted stress metal sheets. The wing was slightly gulled, with the wingtips bending upward, and had the same construction as the fuselage with a combination of metal construction covered in stressed metal sheets.

During its development life, a great number of different types of engines were tested on the He 112. For the main production version, He 112 B-2, the 700 hp Jumo 210G liquid-cooled engine was used, and some were equipped with the 680 hp Jumo 210E engine. The He 112 had a fuel capacity of 101 liters in two wing-mounted tanks, with a third 115-liter tank placed under the pilot’s seat.

The landing gear was more or less standard in design. They consisted of two larger landing wheels that retracted into the wings and one semi-retractable tail wheel. The He 112 landing gear was wide enough to provide good ground handling and stability during take-off or landing.

The cockpit received a number of modifications. Initially, it was open with a simple windshield placed in front of the pilot. Later models had a sliding canopy that was either partially or fully glazed.

While the armament was changed during the He 112’s production, the last series was equipped with two 7.92 mm MG 17 machine guns and two 2 cm Oerlikon MG FF cannons. The ammunition load for each machine gun was 500 rounds, with 60 rounds each for the cannons. If needed, two bomb racks could be placed under the wings.

In Romanian Hands

While Heinkel was desperately trying to sell more of the He 112 fighters, a potential new customer arose in the Balkans. This was Romania, which during the 1930s was severely lacking in aircraft, and the strength of its Air Force was worryingly low in comparison to most European countries. Its main fighter at this time was the obsolete P.Z.L P.11 and P.24 fighters which were acquired from Poland. A smaller number of these were purchased, with the majority being built under license. In an attempt to find the solution to this urgent problem, Romanian King Carol II himself went to visit several potential aircraft manufacturers in Europe. The Germans in particular were quite keen to have a good relationship with Romania, mostly due to its rich oil fields. The Romanians were very interested in acquiring the new Bf 109 fighter, but as it was slowly entering production in Germany, it was not yet audible in sufficient numbers for export. As a temporary solution, the He 112E, an export model based on the B version, was proposed instead. One He 112 was acquired in 1938 and was extensively tested by both the Romanian Air Force pilots and by the engineers at Industria Aeronautică Română I.A.R. (Romanian Aeronautic Industry). While some issues, such as rather poor rudder response and handling during flight, were noted, due to the urgent need for a modern fighter and a lack of alternatives, the initial order for 24 was increased to 30 aircraft. These were the He 112V-1 and B-2 versions equipped with the Jumo 210E and G engines.

The B-series was in many aspects a complete redesign of the previous series. Including the introduction of a new tail unit, and modification of the fuselage, to name a few. (luftwaffephotos.com)

 

Prior to shipment, a group of Romanian pilots arrived in Germany to be sufficiently trained to operate this fighter. This transition to a new, low-wing aircraft, with a fully enclosed crew cockpit and retractable landing gear, was not easy for the Romanian pilots who needed time to adapt to the new design. Once the whole training process was completed the 30 aircraft were sent to Romania. They arrived during a period of late August to early October 1939. During their flight from Germany to Romania, one He 112 was lost in an accident, while a second was damaged but later repaired at I.A.R. The Romanians tested the newly arrived He 112 against the domestically developed I.A.R.80 fighter. The Romanian aircraft proved to be a better design overall, but the He 112, thanks to its good overall handling and firepower, were also deemed satisfactory.

The newly acquired He 112 prior to the flight to Romania in 1939. (D. Bernard )

The 5th Fighter Group

The Romans used the 29 He 112 to equip the Grupul 5 Vânătoare (5th Fighter group). This unit consisted of the Escadrila 10 and 11 (10th and 11th Squadrons), later in October 1939 renamed to Scadrila 51 and 52. The main purpose of this unit was to protect the capital from any potential aerial threat. In April 1940, Germany sent one replacement aircraft for the one lost in transit the previous year, so technically Romanian operated 31 He 112’s in total. In May 1940, the He 112 was first presented to the Romanian public during a military parade.

The Romanian-Hungarian War

In Summer the rising tension between Romania and Hungary over Transylvania reached a critical point. Transylvania was part of Hungary but was lost after the First World War when it was given to Romania. In 1940, the Hungarian Army began preparing for a possible war with Romania. As neither side was willing to enter a hastily prepared war, negotiations began to find a possible solution. But despite this, there were some minor skirmishes. Hungarian aircraft made several reconnaissance flights over Romania. The Romanians responded by repositioning 12 He 112’s to the border but these failed to achieve any success against the enemy reconnaissance operation. On the 27th of August, an He 112 managed to intercept a Hungarian Ca 135 severely damaging it and forcing it to land. Ultimately, at the end of August, Romania asked Germany to arbitrate the issue regarding the disputed territory. Hungary managed to get to the northern part of Transylvania. On the 12th September 1940, one He 112 was lost when during a training flight, the aircraft caught fire from the engine compartment, and the pilot lost control and crashed ground, losing his life in this accident.

In Combat

Following the start of the Second World War with the Soviets, on the 22nd of June 1941, the 24 available (the remaining aircraft were under repairs) He 112’s were repositioned to the Focșani-North airfield in mid-June 1941. Their main task was to attack a Soviet Airfield and other ground targets. While not particularly designed for this role, thanks to its strong armament and even a small bomb load, it had enough firepower to deal serious damage. But the pilots were not trained in this manner nor the aircraft was sufficiently protected, lacking armor to protect the pilot and self-sealing fuel tanks. Occasionally they provided support cover to Romanian bombers. The Romanian main fighter in service at that time was the I.A.R. 80, so the He 112 was to fulfill secondary combat roles.

The He 112 began their first combat actions of the war against the Soviets by flying in an escort mission for the Romanian Potez 63 bombers on the 22nd of June 1941. These were heading toward the Soviet airfields at Bolgrad and Bulgarica. The attack on Bolgrad was successful despite strong Soviet anti-aircraft fire. As the Romanian air group was approaching the Bulgarica airfield they were met with resistance of some 30 Soviet I-16 fighters. One He 112 piloted by Teodor Moscu attacked two I-16 that were in the process of taking off from the airfield. Moscu managed to shoot down one I-16 on his first run. While he was pulling off from his attack another I-16 attacked his He 112. Moscu managed to shoot down this aircraft too, but his He 112 was badly damaged and losing fuel. He managed to reach a Romanian airfield and land the damaged fighter. Teodor Moscu was officially credited with achieving the first air victory for the Romanians during the War with the Soviets.

The He 112 on their first combat mission protecting the Potez 63 bombers on the 22nd of June 1941. (D. Bernard)

On the 23rd, the He 112’s mostly performed ground attack operations against Soviet targets. The same day, some 12 He 112 attacked the Bolgrad airfield. The Soviets responded by sending 7 I-153 fighters. After a brief clash, the Soviet fighters managed to shoot down one He 112. On the 24th, two He 112 were damaged in an accident. On the 28th of June, an He 112 was lost when it was shot down by Soviet anti-aircraft fire. The same day another He 112 was lost when the pilot made a mistake during landing, ultimately leading to an explosion with the aircraft and the pilot being lost. One more was badly damaged when it caught fire after battling a Soviet fighter.

On the 2nd of July, two more fighters were lost again due to Sovie ground anti-air efforts. Three days later the He 112s once again attacked the Bulgarica airfield, attacking the Soviet aircraft with bombs, cannons, and machine gun fire. One I-153 that attempted to take off, but was intercepted and shot down. One He 112 was damaged in the process. Later that day, the He 112’s provided a bomber escort mission where they engaged a group of 12 Soviet fighters. In this engagement, the Romanian pilots managed to bring down 4 enemy fighters but lost one He 112 in the process.

On the 7th of July, two He 112’s attacked a column of Soviet cars near Comrat. The He 112s managed to destroy several of these cars. An interesting event occurred on the 12th of July. On that day, a He 112 was operated by Ioan Lascu while searching for targets in the area of Valea Hârtoapelor. The pilot quickly spotted an enemy armored column and proceed to attack it with bombs. After that, he went for another run and attacked them using the He 112 two cannons. This time the Soviets returned fire and the He 112 was hit by tank gunfire. The He 112 burst into flames and hit the ground, killing the pilot in the process.

In mid-july, the Soviets launched an attack in an attempt to destroy the Romanian Țiganca-Porumbiște bridgehead. Both the Romanians and the Soviets sent substantial air forces to this battle. Thanks to some 150 aircraft, the Romanians managed to repel the Soviet attack. The He 112 saw extensive action during this battle, losing one He 112 and another aircraft being damaged.

By the end of July, only 14 He 112 were reported operational while 8 were under repairs. With the arrival of the domestically built IAR 80 fighters, the He 112 was relocated to Romania in August 1941. These were temporarily allocated for defending the Romanian skies. With the great losses suffered by the 5th Fighter group, its 52nd Squadron was disbanded and its surviving aircraft relocated to the 51st. Out of necessity, the He 112 were in October, once again brought back to the front in the Odessa region, which finally fell to the Axis by mid-October. The He 112 equipped units were placed in this area carrying out either patrolling or reconnaissance missions above the Black Sea. Enemy aircraft were rarely encountered. Only one aircraft, an I-153, was shot down in the spring of 1942 in this area. This was actually the last kill achieved by the He 112 during war. Due to its inexperienced pilot, one He 112 was lost in this area.

In Late October the Romanians issued a war report where the He 112 performance was described. While the diving speed was excellent, the low horizontal and climbing speed was deemed quite poor. The fuel tanks and the pilot seat were not armored which led to unnecessary losses in men and material. The possibility to carry six 12 kg bombs was deemed satisfactory. The quality of ammunition used was poor as too often targets that were hit, did not receive any major damage.

Many He 112s were shot down due to their unprotected fuel tanks and unarmored pilot seat. (albumwar2)

Retirement from the frontline service

Combat around Odessa would be the last major engagement of the Romanian He 112. At the start of July 1942, the 5th Fighter Group was to be equipped with the I.A.R.80 fighters. By this time the remaining He 112 were mostly stored awaiting repairs. On the 19th of July during a Soviet night bombing raid over Bucharest, one He 112 took to the sky attempting to intercept the Soviet Bombers. This was the Romanian Air Force’s first use of fighters in a night raid attack. Even in this role the He 112 would be quickly replaced with the Me 110 twin-engine fighter.

In 1943 the surviving He 112 were placed under the Corpul 3 Aerian (3rd Corps) and acted as training aircraft on several different air bases. When the Romanin switched sides in August 1944, some 9 of the 19 available He 112 were still used as trainers where they awaited the end of the war. The last two surviving Romanian He 112 aircraft were finally scrapped in 1946.

After its retirement from front-line service the surviving He 112 were used as advanced training aircraft. (worldwarphotos)

 

This He 112 from the 52nd Squadron survived the war, but it and all remaining aircraft would be scrapped as they were at that point obviously obsolete and beyond repair. (worldwar2.ro)

In Soviet Aircraft Role

An interesting story related to He 112 in Romanian service was that they achieved some success in cinematography. Namly for the filming of the Italian-Romanian film ‘White Squadron’, where the He 112 were reused as Soviet fighters in September 1942. These were painted in simple gray color and received a large black star. It is unusual to use a black instead of a red star, but given that this was a black-and-white movie this was not a major issue.

A set of He 112s ready for a film appearance. (T.L. Morosanu and D. A. Melinte)

 

Conclusion

The He 112 provided the Romanian Air Force with a capable fighter until a proper replacement could be found. With its armament, it performed generally well in ground attack operations. Due to its inadequate protection, many were brought down quite easily by enemy return fire. Due to attrition, their service life would be severely limited to only a few months of the war before being brought back to Romania to perform a secondary but vital training role. .

He 112B-2 Specifications

Wingspans 29 ft 10 in / 9.1 m
Length 30 ft 2 in / 9.22 m
Height 12 ft 7 in / 3.82 m
Wing Area 180 ft² / 17 m²
Engine One 700 hp Jumo 210G liquid-cooled engine
Empty Weight 3,570 lbs / 1,620 kg
Maximum Take-off Weight 4,960 lbs / 2,250 kg
Climb Rate to 6 km In 10 minutes
Maximum Speed 317 mph / 510 km/h
Cruising speed 300 mph / 484 km/h
Range 715 miles / 1,150 km
Maximum Service Ceiling 31,170 ft / 9,500 m
Crew 1 pilot
Armament
  • Two 20 mm (1.8 in) cannons and two machine guns 7.92 mm (0.31 in) machine guns and 60 kg bombs

Credits

  • Article written by Marko P.
  • Edited by  Henry H. and Pavel. A
  • Ported by Henry H.
  • Illustration by Godzilla

Source:

  • Duško N. (2008) Naoružanje Drugog Svetsko Rata-Nemаčaka. Beograd
  • J. R. Smith and A. L. Kay (1990) German Aircraft of the Second World War, Putnam
  • D. Monday (2006) The Hamlyn Concise Guide To Axis Aircraft OF World War II, Bounty Books
  • T.L. Morosanu and D. A. Melinte Romanian (2010) Fighter Colours 1941-1945 MMP Books
  • D. Bernard (1996) Heinkel He 112 in Action, Signal Publication
  • R.S. Hirsch, U, Feist and H. J. Nowarra (1967) Heinkel 100, 112, Aero Publisher
  • C. Chants (2007) Aircraft of World War II, Grange Books.

Illustrations

 

 

Rogožarski IK-3

Yugoslavia (1938)

Type: Fighter aircraft

Number built: 1 prototype plus 12 production aircraft

The most modern Yugoslavian domestically developed fighter IK-3. (http://www.airwar.ru/image/idop/fww2/ik3/)

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia, despite its rather undeveloped industry and infrastructure, still possessed several aircraft manufacturing companies. During the 1930s, these produced a series of aircraft that would be adopted for military use. These were mostly training aircraft but there were also several fighter designs that would see service with the Kingdom of Yugoslavian Royal Air Force (RYAF). Among them was the IK-3 fighter, created by the well-known Yugoslavian aircraft engineers Ljubomir Ilić, Kosta Sivčev, and Slobodan Zrnić.

History

During the 1930s, the RYAF was mainly equipped with old and obsolete biplane fighters. While this would be eventually solved by the introduction of more modern, foreign designs like the Bf 109 and the Hawker Hurricane, some Yugoslavian aircraft engineers wanted to develop domestic fighter designs. This motivated two aircraft engineers from Ikarus, Ljubomir Ilić and Kosta Sivčev, to start working on such a design. They were already involved in designing a new high-wing fighter named IK-2. This aircraft proved to be superior to older biplane fighters that were in RYAF service. But after a small production series of 12 aircraft, it became obvious that this aircraft would quickly become obsolete, in contrast to other nations’ low-wing fighters.

The IK-2 fighter aircraft. (http://www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs/index.php/istorija/565-ikarus-ik-2)

For this reason in 1933, Ljubomir Ilić and Kosta Sivčev began working on improved fighters on their own initiative. While initially, they tested various ideas, eventually both agreed that a low-wing design was the best option. While having experience in fighter design, these two quickly realized that this project would require more work than the two engineers could achieve on their own. So they asked another engineer Slobodan Zrnić to assist in their work. All three of them worked on this project under the veil of secrecy. Finally, in 1936 they had a finalized project which was presented to the RYAF officials. After some time spent considering this new proposal, the RYAF gave the green light for it at the end of March 1937. A deal was made for the construction of a single prototype for testing and evaluation. While the IK-2 was built by Ikarus, the construction of the new aircraft was given to Rogožarski instead. Given the experience this company had working with wooden airframes, the new fighter was to have a primarily wooden construction to reduce costs and speed up development time.

Name

This project would receive the IK-3 designation. At that time it was common practice that any newly developed aircraft was to be named based on the designer’s initials. In this case, I stood for Ilić and K for Koča, which was Kosta Sivčev’s nickname. The number 3 represents the third fighter project of these two engineers.

Construction of the Prototype

After one year of work, the first prototype was completed. In appearance and design, this was quite a modern aircraft. It was built using a mixed construction and was powered by a 925 hp V-12 Hispano-Suiza 12Y29 engine. It was flight tested for the first time on the 14th of April, 1938. An initial series of test flights were carried out near the capital of Belgrade at Zemun. The test pilot at this early stage was Captain Milan Bjelanović. These flight tests lasted up to the late summer of 1938. During this time, there were no major problems reported with its design, and the aircraft was given to the RYAF for future testing.

The IK-3 first prototype was tested in 1938. (http://www.airwar.ru/image/idop/fww2/ik3/)

A commission of several RYAF officials was elected for the planned army testing and it was agreed that the whole process should last 100 flight hours. For this, the aircraft was to be fully armed which included a centerline mounted 20mm cannon which fired through the propeller hub, and two 7.92 mm machine guns placed in the upper engine cowling.

Following the conclusion of the testing by the RYAF, a report was issued in which its performance was deemed sufficient. The armament was installed and functioned without any major issues, however, it was desirable to add two more machine guns in the wings. The aircraft offered good overall flying performance though its controls were noted to be somewhat problematic and some changes were requested. To resolve this it was asked to improve the design of the flaps, by increasing their deployed angle and size. The canopy was of rather poor quality and was reflective, forcing some test pilots to fly the aircraft with open canopies. The engine had overheating problems which required extensive work before finally being solved by adding an improved cooling system. During these trials, the maximum speed achieved was slightly over 520 km/h. While not bad, the RYAF commission wanted it to be increased to at least 540 km/h, which was not achieved on this aircraft. Overall, this aircraft was deemed worth developing further by the RYAF commission, which gave a recommendation for a small series of 12 aircraft to be produced.

The production of the IK-3

Following the production orders for the IK-3, an accident happened that threatened the realization of the project. On the 19th of January 1939, an accident occurred during a test flight, and test pilot Captain Milan Pokorni was killed, and the plane was lost. A commission was formed to examine what went wrong. After analyzing the wreckage it was determined that the IK-3 prototype’s structural design was not at fault, nor did the pilot make any mistakes. Prior to this accident another pilot Dragutin Rubčić, had a harsh landing, damaging the aircraft in the process. Why this was not properly examined before another take-off by Captain Milan Pokorni is unclear. In another account, during a dive, the canopy broke free which probably made the pilot enter a climb. This seemingly caused enough force to be put on the already damaged aircraft, resulting in structural failure.

While this accident did not lead to the cancellation of the whole project, it did cause huge delays in the delivery of new aircraft. The RYAF officials wanted the aircraft to be thoroughly examined and tested before any further production order was given. Finally, in November 1939, the project received a green light again.

The second prototype, which was also the first aircraft of the first production series, was completed in December 1939. This aircraft was examined in detail over the next few months. As no major issues with the prototype were found, the production of additional 5 aircraft was completed by the 17th of April 1940. The other six aircraft could not be completed as the IK-3’s propellers had to be imported. As there were delivery problems with the last six aircraft, instead of the hydraulically controlled Hispano-type propeller, they were equipped instead with Chauviere-type propellers. It used pneumatic commands which necessitated changes to the engine and its compartment. These were finally completed in July 1940. Once all were available these were allocated to the 51st Fighter Group in July 1940. These were divided into two six-aircraft strong squadrons (the 161st and 162nd) stationed at Zemun airfield near the capital Belgrade.

Members of the 51st Fighter Group in front of their IK_3 during the summer of 1940. (https://nasaborba.com/rogozarski-ik-3-ponos-srpskog-ratnog-vazduhoplovstva/)

Second series proposal

In march 1940, the Rogožarski company proposed to the RYAF another production run of 25 to 50 new IK-3 aircraft. It was to incorporate a number of improvements like self-sealing fuel tanks, a redesigned radiator, adding radio equipment, armor for the pilot seat, an aerodynamically improved engine cowling, and a new gunsight. The company proposed that these could be completed in a period of 9 months. To speed up the developing process, one IK-3 (serial number 7) was selected to be converted as the prototype of this new series. This aircraft was completed by the end of March 1941. It was flown in early April, managing to reach a speed some 15 to 20 km faster than the standard IK-3. Its further development was stopped due to the outbreak of the war.

The second IK-3 prototype was also the first aircraft of the small production series. (http://www.airwar.ru/image/idop/fww2/ik3/)

Further IK-3 modification proposals

Some accounts claim that the aircraft was tested with a DB 601 from one of the RYAF’s imported German fighters. According to eyewitness accounts, this model was fully completed and tested. If this was true, it was not confirmed by any historical documentation or photographic evidence. At the same time a Hurricane aircraft was tested with this engine (known as LVT-1). It is possible that an eyewitness simply confused these two.

Another proposed project was the IK-3/2 two-seater trainer. It was planned to add another position to the rear of the pilot, reduce the armament to two machine guns, and move the cooling radiator some 50 cm to the rear. As a number of modern Bf 108 aircraft were acquired, this project was dropped with no prototype ever constructed.

In service, prior to the war

The newly produced IK-3 entered service at the end of 1940 and was used primarily in training flights. They were especially used to test their performance against the Bf 109, which was also in service with the RYAF. The Bf 109 offered better horizontal and climbing speed. In comparison, the IK-3 possessed better horizontal maneuverability, possessing a smaller turning radius of 260 m, the Bf 109 on the other hand had a turning radius of 320 m. The IK-3 also had a somewhat more stable armament installation, providing better accuracy during firing. As the pilots who flew on the IK-3 were not entirely accustomed to flying on modern airplanes, harsh landings were quite common. This necessitated that many IK-3 were often in workshops awaiting repairs of their landing gear units.

The IK-3’s Achilles Heel was its landing gear unit which was of poor quality. This led to a quite common breakdown of the landing gear during landings. This aircraft was damaged in this way a day before the outbreak of the war. The Germans would capture it and later, in 1942, send it to be scrapped. (http://www.airwar.ru/image/idop/fww2/ik3/)

The sixth produced IK-3 would be lost in an accident that happened on the 3rd of September 1940. During a mock dogfight with a Potez 25, pilot Anton Ercigoj lost control of the fighter and fell into the Danube river. The pilot was killed on the spot and the aircraft could not be salvaged. While it was not clear how the accident happened, it was speculated that it did occur due to the pilot being too tired from previous flights.

In War

Just prior to the outbreak of the so-called April war, from the 6th to 17th April 1941, between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Axis forces, only 6 IK-3 were combat-ready. The remaining 5 aircraft were awaiting repairs. Three were located at the Rogožanski workshop in Bežanijska Kosa, and two more at the Zemun Airfield. The war began with massive Luftwaffe bombing raids on vital military, communication, infrastructure, and civilian targets. The capital, Belgrade, was a primary target of strategic bombing and was majorly hit. The whole 6th Fighter Regiment, to which the 51st Fighter Group belonged, was tasked to defend Northern Serbia and parts of Croatia and Bosnia from any potential enemy attacks. The 51st Fighter Group reinforced the 102nd Fighter Squadron equipped with Bf 109 and was tasked with defending the Northern sector. Its primary defense point was the capital Belgrade.

The 51st Fighter Group was informed of a possible enemy attack almost an hour before it occurred. At 0645, the unit was informed of two approaching enemy aircraft formations. Five minutes later, all available IK-3s took to the sky to defend the capital. One aircraft, due to engine problems, had to abort the flight and went back to the base.

During the first engagement, some 5 to 6 enemy aircraft (at least one Ju 87) were shot down. One IK-3 was shot down and three more were damaged. Two of these were badly damaged and they were not used in combat after this point. The defenders were then left with only three operational IK-3 aircraft. Late that morning, another bombing raid was launched by the enemy. While only three IK-3 were available at this point, their attack was supported by the Bf 109s from the 51st Group. While the Yugoslavian fighters reported no losses, they managed to take down one Bf 109 and damaged two Ju 87. During the first day of combat, the Germans used nearly 500 bombers which dropped some 360 tonnes of bombs on Belgrade.

The following day, enemy activity came in the form of smaller formations that attacked specific targets. The Ik-3s once again saw action, managing to shoot down more enemy aircraft. While they received no losses, many aircraft were badly damaged by enemy return fire. For example, the IK-3 fighter piloted by Milisav Semiz received 56 hits. The engine itself received some 20 direct hits. While fully covered in engine oil the pilot managed to land safely at the Zamun airfield, the aircraft had to be written off. This unit was reinforced with one IK-3 of the second series. Due to heavy enemy activity, the unit was repositioned some 50 km away from Belgrade at Ruma. For the next few days due to bad weather, the IK-3 was not used. On the 11th of April, the Yugoslavian positions were discovered by a Me 110, which proceeded to attack the airfield. It failed to do any damage, but one IK-3 began a pursuit of it. Eventually, it managed to close in on it and shoot it down. Later that day, two IK-3s took to the sky and managed to shoot down two Ju 87s.

At 1700 hours, due to an enemy ground advance, it was decided to move the available units to Bosnia. The retreat was to commence on the 12th of April, but due to sudden enemy advances and poor weather, the evacuation could not be achieved. The unit commander and pilots agreed to burn down any surviving aircraft to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. This action basically marked the end of the IK-3 service with the RYAF.

Remains of the burn-down IK-3 at Ruma airbase. (N. Miklušev Maketar Plus)

In total both the 161st and 162nd squadrons reported some 15 air victories. These included two Ju 88, one Do 17, two Ju 87, two Bf 109, three Me 110, and one He 111. The remaining claims remain a mystery.

In German hands

The victorious Germans managed to capture a number of operational and damaged IK-3s fighters. Most were captured at Rogoarski repair workshops, with a few more at the Zemun airfield, all being abandoned. This included the IK-3 with serial numbers 2151 (which was actually the second prototype) 2152, 2153, 2157, 2158, 2160, and 2161. Most of these would be left exposed to the elements, near the capital Belgrade, until 1942 when they and many other captured aircraft were scrapped. At least one IK-3 was transported back to Germany. It is unlikely that it was used for testing, and some sources suggested but instead placed in the Berlin Aviation Museum. Its fate is unknown but likely lost when the museum was bombed by the Allies in 1944.

A captured IK-3 near the Capital of Belgrade after the April war. (http://www.airwar.ru/image/idop/fww2/ik3/)
Many captured Yugoslavian aircraft were gathered at the Zemun airfield. There at least three IK-3s could be seen together with some Hurricanes and Caproni aircraft. Most if not all of these would be left exposed to the elements and finally scrapped in 1942. (N. Miklušev Maketar Plus)

Technical characteristics

The IK-3 was a low-wing, mixed-construction single-seat fighter. Its fuselage consisted of welded chrome-molybdenum tubes supported with wooden stringers, and covered in duralumin skin. The rear part of the fuselage was covered in plywood and canvas. The wings were mostly made of wood with some metal links added for better structural stability. The IK-3 wings were covered with birch plywood which was in turn covered in bakelite. The ailerons were made of metal, but covered with canvas. While the trailing edge flaps were made of duralumin, assembly was made using the same materials as the wings.

The IK-3 was powered by a 925 hp, V-12 Hispano-Suiza 12Y29 liquid-cooled engine. It used a Hamilton-type constant-speed propeller. The cooling airflow was adjustable by changing the angle of the grills located on the radiator intakes.

The canopy initially was made by using concave-convex side panels. These proved to be problematic as they distorted the pilot’s vision and were replaced with simpler flat sides. The instrument controls panel and command were directly copied from French designs. The first prototype and the later first-moved aircraft of the second series were only equipped with radios.

The IK-3 was designed as a low-wing mix construction single-seat fighter. (http://www.airwar.ru/image/idop/fww2/ik3/)

The landing gear was of a conventional design consisting of two front legs which retracted outwards, with the tail wheel being fully retractable. To provide better landing, the front landing gear units had shock absorbers. The IK-3 landing gear was of rather poor quality and it often broke down during landing, and led to many aircraft being constantly under repair.

Initially, the armament consisted of one 2 cm HS 404 cannon placed behind the engine, and two 7.7 mm M.31 Darne machine guns, positioned above the engine. This was used on the prototype for firing testing. Later production models were rearmed with one 2 cm Oerlikon M.39 cannon supplied with 60 rounds of ammunition. The 7.7 mm machine guns were replaced with two 7.92 mm Browning machine guns. The ammunition load for each machine gun consisted of 500 rounds.

The IK_3 was fairly strongly armed with one 2 cm cannon and two machine guns. The cannon is actually firing through the propeller center, which is visible in this photograph. (https://nasaborba.com/rogozarski-ik-3-ponos-srpskog-ratnog-vazduhoplovstva/ )

Production

Despite its advanced design, only one prototype and 12 aircraft would be built. This took an extended period of time to be completed from December 1939 to July 1940. While proving to be one of the better domestically developed aircraft, the RYAF was reluctant to order more IK-3 fighters as it was heavily dependent on imported parts.

Production Versions

  • IK-3 Prototypes – Two prototypes were completed
  • IK-3 – Production version
  • IK-3 II Series – One aircraft converted to this version
  • IK-3 powered by a DB 601 engine – Allegedly one aircraft was modified this way, but the evidence is lacking
  • IK-3/2 Series – Proposal for a two-seater trainer, none ever completed

Conclusion

Despite being a very capable design, the IK-3 saw only limited production. This was mainly the case due to many of its parts having to be imported, something that could not be easily done in war-torn Europe. When used in combat, despite the limited number of operational aircraft, they performed well, with claims for 10 enemy aircraft at the loss of only one IK-3. Ultimately they could do little to turn the tide of the war, and most were either captured or destroyed by their own crews to avoid being captured.

IK-3 Specifications

Wingspans 10.3 m / 33 ft 4 in
Length 8 m / 26 ft 3 in
Height 3.5 m / 10 ft 9 in
Wing Area 16.5 m² / 178 ft²
Engine 925 hp V-12 Hispano-Suiza 12Y29 liquid-cooled engine
Empty Weight 2.070 kg / 4.560 lbs
Maximum Takeoff Weight 2.630 kg / 5.800 lbs
Maximum Speed 520 km/h / 325 mph
Cruising speed 400 km/h / 250 mph
Range 600 km / 370 miles
Maximum Service Ceiling 9,400 m
Fuel 330 Liters
Crew 1 pilot
Armament
  • One 2 cm cannon and two 7.92 mm machine guns

Gallery

IK-3 Prototype - 1940
IK-3 Prototype – 1940
IK-3 51.Grupa, 6.Lovacki Puk No.2158 Br.9 April 1941
IK-3 161.Eskadrilla, 51.Grupa No.218 April 1941
IK-3-161.Eskadrilla,-51.Grupa-No.10 - April 1941
IK-3 161.Eskadrilla, 51.Grupa No.2159 Br.10 – April 1941
Possible markings for captured IK-3 being tested by a German research unit

Credits

  • Article written by Marko P.
  • Edited by  Henry H. and Medicman11
  • Ported by Marko P.
  • Illustrations by Ed Jackson

Source:

  • N. Miklušev (2014) Maketar Plus, IMPS Srbija
  • Č. Janić i O. Petrović (2011) Kratka istorija vazduhoplovstva u Srbiji, Aero Komunikacije
  • D.Babac Elitni vidovi Jugoslovenske vojske u Aprilskom ratu.
  • Z. Rendulić (2014) Lovačka Avijacija 1914-1945, Teovid
  • B. Dimitrijević, M. Micevski and P. Miladinović (2016) Kraljevstvo Vayduhoplovstvo 1912-1945
  • N. Miklušev (2014) Maketar Plus, IMPS Srbija
  • N. Miklušev (2004) Avijacija Br.6
  • M. Hrelja, Rogožanski IK-3, Srpska Akademija Nauka I Umetnosti
  • http://www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs/index.php/istorija/563-rogozarski-ikz-ik3

 

 

Messerschmitt Me 163C

Nazi flag Nazi Germany (1944)

Rocket-Powered Interceptor Fighter: Reached Prototyping Stage

A diagram of the improved rocket interceptor. (Nevingtonwarmuseum)

When the Me 163B entered service, it was a unique aircraft by virtue of its rocket engine. It was used as a short range interceptor for German air defense, and while it could achieve extremely high speeds, its overall design left much to be desired. These faults included a highly restrictive view from the cockpit, a lack of retractable landing gear, and limited operational endurance. In order to address some of these issues,  Messerschmitt engineers developed the Me 163C.

 

History 

While the Me 163B Komet proved to be a remarkable design, it was quite dangerous to fly  and there was plenty of room for improvement.  In order to make the whole aircraft as cheap as possible, some limitations had been introduced. To save weight, the aircraft had rather small dimensions which, in turn, limited the fuel load that could be stored inside. This led to a limited powered flight time of fewer than 8 minutes. In combat operations, this proved to be insufficient, but there was little that the German engineers could do to improve this. Adding internal or external auxiliary fuel tanks was not possible given the design restrictions.

Me 163B rocket interceptor, accepted into limited service. (militaryimages.net)

The position and layout of the cockpit also offered a number of issues. Most importantly, it provided the pilot with a limited field of view behind his aircraft. Another issue was the lack of retractable landing gear. The Me 163 was instead forced to use a two-wheeled detachable dolly. This was intentionally done in order to reduce weight.

Once the aircraft was in the air, the dolly was jettisoned. There were accidents regarding this system when, for example, the dolly refused to be detached from the aircraft, or even worse, when it bounced off the ground and hit the aircraft from below. On landing, the Me 163 was to use a simple retractable landing skid, placed beneath the fuselage. After landing, the aircraft was immobile and became an easy target for enemy fighters. For this reason, a normal retracting landing gear unit was desirable, but once again for the same reason as the fuel load, this could not be implemented.

To redress the previously mentioned issues, engineers at Messerschmitt began working on an improved version, the Me 163C. It incorporated a longer fuselage, an improved cockpit, and had an engine with two combustion chambers. The development of this version likely started in late 1944 or early 1945.

Production and service

The precise development history, and how many aircraft of this version were built, are the subject of considerable speculation. The fact that there are no photographs of it complicates the matter further. Most sources mentioned that only a few incomplete airframes were built by the Germans. In some sources, for example B. Rose’s Secret Projects Flying Wings and Tailless Aircraft, it is mentioned that three prototypes were completed and flight-tested in early 1945.  Source E. T. Maloney and U. Feist on the other hand, mentions that only a few pre-prototype airframes were built by the time the war ended in Europe. So there are two completely different accounts in the sources.

Technical characteristics

The Me 163C, like its predecessor, was designed as a high-speed, rocket-powered, swept-wing, tailless aircraft. Given its experimental nature and its late development into the war, not much is known about its precise technical characteristics. Its overall construction would probably be similar to the previous version, with its fuselage being built of metal, and possessing wooden wings. The semi-monocoque fuselage was longer and was now 7 m compared to the original 5.84 m length.

The Me 163C was to be powered by an improved Walter 109-509C or an HWK 109-509A-2 rocket engine. In the case of the first engine, it could generate a thrust of some 1.500 kg.  An auxiliary HWK 509 rocket engine would be used to provide additional endurance once the aircraft reached its cruising altitude. The maximum speed of the Me 163C was estimated at 915 km/h while the operational range was 125 km.

While the introduction of retractable landing gear was desirable, the Me 163C was not to be equipped with one, but it still received some modifications in this regard. It was to have a fully retractable tail wheel located at the bottom of the tail assembly.

The cockpit was completely redesigned. It received a fully glazed bubble-type canopy. This offered the pilot a much improved all-around view. In addition, there were provisions for pressurization equipment.

The armament used on this aircraft is not quite clear in the sources. It would have consisted of either two 2 cm MG 151 with 100 rounds of ammunition for each cannon, two 30 mm MK108 cannons with 60 rounds, or less realistically, four 30 mm MK108 cannons with 40 rounds of ammunition.

Note the redesigned canopy, auxiliary engine, and extended fuselage. (www.walterwerke.co.uk)

Cancelation of the project

While the precise development of this aircraft is unclear, most sources agree on the reasons why it was not adopted, beyond the obvious end of the war. Basically, there were two main reasons for this. First, was the lack of landing gear. The Me 163C still had to take off and land using the take-off dolly and the landing skid. This was far from perfect as the dolly, as mentioned, could potentially damage the aircraft itself after release, and the use of a sliding skid made the aircraft immobile after landing. Lastly, the auxiliary engine only extended the operational flight by an additional 1-minute, which was deemed insufficient.  It was for these reasons that  the Me 163C would not be adopted, and instead the development of the much improved Me 163D was prioritized.

Conclusion

Given its experimental nature, it’s late introduction, and the disagreement between sources, it is quite difficult to make the final decision on the general properties of this aircraft. Given that the project was canceled by the Germans, it is likely that besides a few experimental prototypes, no actual production aircraft were be assembled. Regardless it served as a stepping stone for the next version, the Me 163D, which was built, but it too would not be adopted for service due to the end of the war.

Me 163C Specifications

Wingspans 32 ft 2 in / 9.8 m
Length 23 ft 1 in / 7 m
Height 3 m / ft  in
Wing Area 220 ft² /  20.41 m²
Engine Walther HWL 509C-1 liquid fuel  rocket engine with a max thrust of 1.500 kg
Empty Weight 4,850 lbs / 2,200 kg
Maximum Takeoff Weight 11,680 lbs / 5.300 kg
Maximum Speed 570 mph / 915 km/h
Operational range 78 mil / 125 km
Engine endurance 12 minutes
Maximum Service Ceiling 40,000 ft /  12,200 m
Crew One pilot
Armament
  • Two 20 cm MG 151 (100) / Two 30 mm MK108 cannons  60
The Me 163C Rocket powered interceptor.

Credits

  • Article written by Marko P.
  • Edited by  Henry H. and Medicman11
  • Ported by Marko P.
  • Illustrations by Carpaticus

Source:

  • D. Nešić (2008)  Naoružanje Drugog Svetsko Rata-Nemcaka. Beograd.
  • E. T. Maloney and U. Feist (1968) Messerschmitt Me 163, Fallbrook
  • M. Emmerling and J. Dressel  (1992) Messerschmitt Me 163 “Komet” Vol.II, Schiffer Military History
  • J.R. Smith and A. L. Kay (1990) German AIrcraft of the Second World War, Putnam
  • W. Spate and R. P. Bateson (1971) Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, Profile Publications
  • M. Ziegler (1990) Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, Schiffer Publishing
  • D. SHarp (2015) Luftwaffe secret jets of the Third Reich, Mortons Media Group
  • M. Griehl (1998) Jet Planes of the Third Reich, Monogram Aviation Publication
  • B. Rose (2010) Secret Projects Flying Wings and Tailless Aircraft, Midland
  • http://www.walterwerke.co.uk/walter/me163d.htm

 

Maeda Ku-6

 Empire of Japan (1943)
Experimental Glider Tank – One Mock-up Model

While tanks can provide excellent offensive firepower, they can’t always be easily transported to where they are needed. In the case of Japan during WW2, this was usually achieved by using ships and rail lines to transport them to where they were needed. Facing difficult terrain and disrupted shipping routes, the concept of a flying tank became a promising concept to the Japanese military hierarchy. By transporting tanks via the air, they could potentially offer benefits to the airborne troops, who were often left without proper heavy support. An exploration of this concept would lead to the creation of the Maeda Ku-6 tank glider.

The Concept of Airborne Operations

The American M22 Locust light airborne tank. (Source: Wikimedia)

The practice of dropping airborne troops behind enemy lines offers many tactical advantages, as they can attack weak points and enemy supply lines. This in turn would force the opposing side to redistribute its own forces away from the front to deal with this problem. On the other hand, airborne forces often lack proper artillery or armor support, making them vulnerable to well-equipped and directed enemies. Some nation armies responded to this by employing glider transportable light field artillery and even recoilless, high caliber guns. Transporting armored vehicles proved a more daring task to implement. Most tanks could not be easily carried inside a transport plane or even parachuted due to their weight and size. The American and British responded by developing lightly armored and armed tanks, such as the M22 Locust or the Light Tank Mk VII Tetrarch. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, designed an auxiliary glider contraption that would be used to transport a heavier tank, the Antonov A-40. This principle would also be tested by the Japanese Army during the war, which led to the creation of the Maeda Ku-6 project.

Antonov’s flying tank was unsuccessfully tested by the Soviets. (Source: Wikimedia)

Airborne Japan

The Japanese began the development of cargo glider designs for military use in 1937. Following the successful use of gliders by the Germans during their conquest of the West in May 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army began developing new gliders in June 1940. In response to this, the Imperial Japanese Navy began its own project soon after. In Japanese terminology, these were designated Kakku (English: to glide).

Both the IJA and IJN had and used parachute infantry units. It is important to note that these were relatively small units that were rarely employed in their intended role. For these reasons, their equipment was more or less the same as that of ordinary infantry formations. They saw the most active service during the fight for the Dutch East Indies in 1942. These were mainly used to capture various vital strategic points, such as airfields or weakly defended positions deep in the enemy’s rear line. Following the end of this campaign, the Japanese did not use paratrooper units in their primary role.

Japanese paratrooper IJN units had two notable deployments: in the successful Battle of Manado from 11th to the the12th January 1942, on Celebes Island, also known as Sulawesi, and in the Battle of Timor from19th February 1942-10th February 1943, where IJN paratroopers suffered heavy casualties. Their IJA counterparts were used more as a commando unit and were only ever airdropped during the invasion of Sumatra in February 1942.

Map of Japanese expansion by 1942. Some of these offensive operations also included the use of parachute units, albeit to a limited extent. (Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/389350330265435193/)

In 1943, attempts were made to increase their firepower, though, it is unclear how much impact the experiences from the airborne operations of February 1942 had. It was proposed to use specially designed glider tanks that could be flown to their designated target and thus provide necessary firepower to otherwise weakly armed paratrooper formations. In addition, this vehicle could be airlifted to any other theater of war without a need for them to be transported by ships, which were by this time, seriously endangered by the US Navy.

The Maeda Ku-6

The project was initiated by the Army Head Aviation Office in collaboration with the Fourth Army Research Center. The first drawings of this new design were soon ready and were allocated to the Maeda research center for the construction of a working prototype. In the early stage of development, the new tank was to be transported by a specially designed glider. But as Maeda was unable to create a glider that could transport a light tank, and so another solution was needed. Maeda engineers suggested another approach to this problem. As no glider could be developed to carry a tank, maybe the tank itself could be modified to use a glider.

While Maeda was responsible for the glider development, the design of the tank was given to Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. It is unclear if it was a completely new tank design or if Mitsubishi reused some of the existing vehicles that were in service. According to the Japanese Army and Navy Aircraft Complete Guide, the Type 98 light tank was used for the project. This tank was intended as a replacement for the Type 95 Ha-Go, but this was never achieved as it was built too late and in very small numbers.

The Type 98 light tank on which the Ku-6 was allegedly based. (Source: Wikimedia)

Name of the Project

According to E. M. Dyer, the new light tank was designated as So-Ra (Sora-Sha), which could be translated as the “sky” or “air” tank. The whole project would be designated Kuro-Sha, with the Ku and Ro, meaning the number ‘6’, taken from the Ku-6 glider designation. Lastly, the Sha stands for “tank”. An older source, J. E. Mrazek, mentions that the tank design originated in late 1939. According to Mrazek, the tank was initially designated ‘special Tank project 3’. It received the Sora-Sha designation before being changed to Kuro-Sha (English: Black Vehicle).

Technical Specification

The Ku-6 was designed as a tank transport glider. While not specified, it is likely that the Ku-6 would have been made out of wood. Due to the losses of the original documents, not much is known about its overall design. Over the years, historians based on available information devised two different designs of how this contraption may have looked.

The tank itself, due to its nature of use, had to be as light as possible. This means it would have been lightly armored and armed. The So-Ra’s total weight was slightly above 3 tonnes and would have been operated by two crew members. The driver was positioned in the front of the vehicle. He was also responsible for piloting the whole glider. Behind him, in the turret, was the commander, who was responsible for operating the main armament. This small crew would have greatly affected the tank’s overall performance. Given the limitation in size and weight, adding more crew members was not possible. In normal circumstances, the driver’s vision ports would have been small and protected. In this case, he would need to have a good and unobscured overall view of his surroundings. For this reason, he was to be provided with three large viewports. The armor was to be less than 12 mm thick. While its armament consisted of one 37 mm gun, along with a machine gun, a possible installation of a flame thrower was also considered.

The wooden mock-up of the Japanese airborne tank project. (Source: https://www.armedconflicts.com/Maeda-Ku-6-t41347)

As the tracks would cause massive drag during take-off, specially designed sleds would be attached to them to facilitate an easier take-off. According to the first proposals, the tank itself was designed to act as an improvised glider fuselage and the wings and the tail assembly would be attached to it.  The tank crews would be provided with wired controls installed inside the vehicle in order to pilot it. In front of the tank, a towing cable would be added to connect it to the glider tug.

In the first version, the wings were to be attached to the So-Ra sides with the tail assembly to the rear. (Source: https://www.armedconflicts.com/Maeda-Ku-6-t41347 https://imgur.com/a/xaLcNcO)

The second version is completely different. Above the tank, a larger wing with a twin tail boom was added. These two components would be connected by struts. In both cases, once the tank hit the ground, the wing assemblies could be easily removed, which meant that the tank could immediately go into action with relative ease.

The second version was completely different in appearance. (Source: https://www.armedconflicts.com/Maeda-Ku-6-t41347)

It is unspecified which material would be used during the whole wing assembly. Given its rather late introduction and Japanese limited resources at this point, wood would likely be used.  With the whole wing assembly, the Ku-6 had a length of between 12.8 to 15 m (depending on the source) with a width of 22 m and a height of 3 m. The wing area was around 60 m².

The maximum towing speed at heights of 4 km was 250 km/h. The maximum speed that could be achieved during the gliding flight itself was 174 km/h. The decent speed at 4 km altitude was 2.8 sec/m while at lower heights closer to the ground it was 2.6 sec/m. It is important to note that these are projected figures.

Testing and Project’s Fate

Due to the slow pace of work, the first operational glider prototype was completed in 1945. The tank itself was not ready by this time. As a temporary solution, a wooden mock-up of it with ballast was intended to be used instead. The prototype was taken to the sky by a Mitsubishi Ki-21 medium bomber. Almost from the start, the Ku-6 (according to E. M. Dyer the second variant was used) proved to have poor overall flight characteristics, and the pilot had a poor view. Lastly, as it was specially designed to carry the So-Ra, its transport capacity for other vehicles was very limited. The IJA officials quickly became disinterested in the Ku-6, focusing instead on the Ku-7 general purpose glider which looked more promising. Another aspect that we must take into account was the poor state of the Japanese Army in 1945. By this point, it was so battered and depleted, that undertaking an airborne operation was an impossible task. In the end, the Ku-6 would be terminated and the fate of the single prototype is unknown, but it was either scrapped or lost during Allied bombing raids.

The prototype was taken to the sky using a Mitsubishi Ki-21 aircraft. (Source: Wikimedia)
The Ku-7 was a more orthodox glider design. While they were built in small numbers, they would be mainly used for testing and were not used operationally by the Japanese Army. (Source: https://listverse.com/2015/09/29/10-goofy-warplanes-of-world-war-ii/)

Conclusion

The Ku-6 seems like an interesting concept that could have offered a number of benefits to the Japanese in the early years of the Pacific theater. By 1943, when the project was initiated, the war situation for Japan had rapidly deteriorated, with the Allies pressing on all sides. In reality, the Ku-6 proved to be too flawed in design. It was difficult to control and the pilot had poor visibility. Given that it was a glider, it would make an easy target for Allied fighters which, by its construction time, had almost complete air supremacy.

 

Specification Maeda Ku-6
Wingspan 22 m / 72 ft 1 in
Length 15 m / 42 ft
Height 3 m / 9 ft 8 in
Wing Area 60 m² / 645 ft²
Maximum Takeoff Weight 4.200 kg / 9.260 lbs
Maximum Gliding Speed 174 km/h / 108 mph
Maximum Towing Speed 250 km/h
Crew Two pilot/driver and the commander /gunner
Maeda Ku-6 hypothetical side wing configuration
Proposed version with the top wing construction.

 

Credits

  • Written by Marko P.
  • Edited by Henry H. & Medicman11.
  • Illustrated by Godzilla

Sources

  • D. Nešić (2008), Naoružanje Drugog Svetsko Rata-Japan, Beograd
  • E. M. Dyer (2009) Japanese Secret Projects Experimental Aircraft of the IJA and IJN 1939-1945, Midland
  • J. E. Mrazek (1977) Fighting Gliders of World War II, ST Martin Press
  • S. J. Zaloga (2007) Japanese tanks 1939-45, New Vanguard
  • Tomio Hara’s Japanese Tanks 1978
  • Japanese Army and Navy Aircraft Complete Guide
  • L. Ness (2015) Rikugun Guide To Japanese Ground Forces 1937-1945, Helion and Company

Ikarus IK-2

kingdom of yugoslavia flag Yugoslavia (1933)
Fighter – 2 Prototypes & 12 Production Aircraft Built

The IK-2 fighter aircraft. Source: www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs

During the early 1930’s, the Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force (RYAF) was mainly equipped with old and obsolete biplane fighters. The introduction of a new fighter was desirable, but its development was hampered by the resistance of leading military officials, and pilots who still believed in the superiority of the biplane. Once Ikarus commenced production of the new high-wing IK-2, it readily demonstrated its superiority over the biplanes of the prior generation.

History of Ikarus 

Ikarus was one of the first Yugoslavian domestic aircraft manufacturers. It was formed in October 1923 by a group of businessmen from the city of Novi Sad. The aircraft development department was led by Josip Mikl and Dimitrije Konjević. Josip Mikl had previously been involved in the development of hydroplanes for the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I, while Dimitrije Konjević was a former high-ranking officer in the Yugoslav Naval Air Force. The company saw success during the twenties and received a series of new orders for the production of aircraft, mostly for training. In 1927 thanks to increasing revenues, Ikarus opened a new production plant located in Zemun near the capital of Belgrade. It was heralded as a great success when it received a large production order for some 200 license-built Potez 25 aircraft in 1932.

Ikarus crest. Source: Wiki

The IK-2 Development

In early 1930, the main fighter of the RYAF was the aging Avia BH-33 biplane fighter. In the hopes of replacing it with a new domestically-developed fighter, two aircraft engineers from Ikarus, Ljubomir Ilić, and Kosta Sivčev began working on a new design. Interestingly this was a private venture and not ordered by the state, which was unusual.

While initially intended to be a low-wing fighter with retracting landing gear, due to fierce opposition from many Air Force officers and pilots who favored the old biplane design, this new concept had to be abandoned at an early stage of development. The two engineers then decided to proceed with a high-wing fighter design that was to be powered by a strong engine. A wooden mock-up was completed in 1933 which would be tested using a wind tunnel in Paris. After the first drawings and testing of the mock-up were completed, the result of this work was given to the RYAF officials in September 1933. After an analysis of all available data, a green light was given for the project, and Ikarus was instructed to build the first prototype.

At this early stage, the new fighter received the IK-L1 designation. As was common in Yugoslavia at the time, new aircraft designs usually received a designation based on the designer’s initials. In this case, I stand for  Ilić and K stands for Koča which was Kosta Sivčev nickname. The L1 represents L for Fighter (Lovac in Yugoslavian) and the number 1 indicates the first prototype. The first fully functional prototype was completed by September 1934.

The first prototype IK-L1 with its two designers Ljubomir Ilić and Kosta Sivčev next to it. Source: www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs

Testing the First Prototype

While the IK-L1 prototype was scheduled to be flight tested shortly after the first prototype was fully completed in September 1934, due to numerous delays it wasn’t conducted until April 1935. Unfortunately for the Ikarus and its design team, the first prototype had a very short and abrupt service life. As it was being prepared for the first series of test flights, an upswell of opposition, mainly from Captain Leonid Bajdak and other pilots, vehemently objected to the introduction of such a radical new design, arguing that the biplanes were superior. Regardless, Bajdak was chosen to fly test the IK-L1 prototype.

The maiden flight was made on the 22nd of April, 1935 at an airfield near Belgrade in Zemun. The first day of flying was rather successful, with the prototype exhibiting generally good performance. The test the following day produced largely similar results, but upon landing, some of the wing’s fabric skin was noted as slightly loose. Regardless, it was agreed that the testing should carry on. On the 24th of April, while flying the prototype, Captain Bajdak performed a series of unplanned aerobatics. At a height of 1,000 meters, he made a sharp dive, followed by an abrupt climb. This of course caused massive stress on the wing, which led to part of it breaking off the aircraft. Bajdak lost control and had to bail out. While he survived without injury, the IK-L1 prototype crashed and was completely destroyed.

According to Captain Bajdak in his report, he wrote that the IK-L1 had good controls and was pleasant to fly. The most obvious issues were the lack of visibility, due to the high-wing design. Another of his objections was the long take-off of some 300 meters. This was a surprisingly fair report from a pilot who professed such serious misgivings about this new design.

Work on a New Prototype

After an analysis of the IK-L1 wreckage, it was discovered that the accident was primarily due to poor build quality. As Captain Bajdak’s report was insufficient to make a final conclusion, Ikarus officials decided to produce another prototype. This time great care was taken to ensure the overall quality of its construction. Another change made was that the aircraft was built using mostly metal construction, with the exception of the aft fuselage and tail. The second prototype was designated IK-02 and took about ten months to be built, completed in June 1936. A new test pilot was chosen, Flight Lieutenant Janko Dobnikar. The series of flight tests were carried out at the newly opened test center stationed at the Zemun airfield. Early flight tests were quite satisfactory, with the IK-02 reaching a top speed of 435 km/h.

In 1937 the IK-02 prototype was tested in a mock dogfight against the Hawker Fury, the RYAF’s then-current biplane fighter. After a series of 16 such exercises, the IK-02 easily beat the Hawker Fury in almost every category of flight performance,  speed, climb rate, and turning ability, among others. Frustrated by the success of the new fighter, Captain Bajdak and Lieutenant Dobnikar frequently got into fierce quarrels. It ended with Lieutenant Dobnikar challenging Captain Bajdak to a flight contest. The conditions of the contest were as follows: both pilots had to reach a height of 4 km over Zemun, after which they were to race a distance of 140 km from Belgrade to Novi Sad and back. The competition was meant to end in a mock dogfight between the two. Lieutenant Dobnikar IK-02 easily won the first two rounds of the race. The mock dogfight was fierce but Captain Bajdak’s Fury was constantly overtaken by the superior IK-02. In the end, he had to admit defeat and thus concede that the IK-02 had bested the biplane. Unfortunately, the IK-02 would be lost when it was hit by lightning during a flight. As the aircraft began to catch fire, the pilot bailed out. While he survived, the aircraft crashed and burned, completely destroying it.

Limited Production

Despite both prototypes being lost to separate accidents, their overall performance was deemed acceptable and a small production order was given. In November 1937 Ikarus was instructed to produce 12 IK-2 aircraft. The first six were delivered in December 1938, with the remaining aircraft arriving by February the following year. After a brief period of adjustment and training, the IK-2 was allocated to the 6th Fighter regiment stationed in Zemun. In October 1939, the IK-2 was redeployed to Zagreb and given to the 4th Fighter Regiment. Just prior to the Yugoslavian entry into World War II, the 4th Fighter Regiment would be repositioned to Bosanski Aleksandrovac close to Banja Luka. It was part of the 107th Squadron with the task of protecting the 8th Bomber Regiment, consisting of some 23 Bristol Blenheim bombers.

Despite being superior to other fighter designs that were in service with the RYAF, it too would be replaced by the later developed IK-3 fighter. Source: www.destinationsjourney.com

Technical Characteristics

The IK-2 was a high-wing, single-engine, almost all-metal fighter aircraft.  Its fuselage was constructed of a chrome-molybdenum steel tube frame which was then covered with duralumin skin. The rear section of the fuselage close to the tail unit was covered with fabric.

The semi-cantilever wings were built using the same principle as the fuselage. The difference was that the first prototype used a fabric skin. The second prototype and the production aircraft used a duralumin skin. Two larger struts were placed beneath each wing. The tail unit was of a standard design, with one horizontal and two vertical stabilizers.

Close-up view of the IK-2 wing struts construction. Source: N. Miklušev Maketar Plus

The fixed landing gear consisted of two larger wheels and a smaller tailwheel. To help during landing the front landing gear was equipped with pneumatic shock absorbers. These were also fitted with brakes. The tailwheel was steerable. Initially, the front landing wheels were covered in a protective cover, also known as ‘spats,’ which were later removed.

The cockpit was fully enclosed. Interestingly its sliding canopy actually slid down into the fuselage sides. Quite similar to those used on ordinary cars. Due to the high wing design, the pilot’s visibility was severely limited. To somewhat remedy this issue two small glass windows were placed on the cockpit fuselage sides to help during landing.

The IK-2 cockpit was fully enclosed, but its sliding canopy slides down into the fuselage sides. Source: N. Miklušev Maketar Plus
To help the pilot cope with the cockpit’s fairly limited visibility, two smaller glass windows were placed on the cockpit fuselage sides. Source: N. Miklušev Maketar Plus

The two IK-2 prototypes were powered by an 860 hp Hispano-Suiza V-12 engine. It was equipped with an adjustable pitch three-blade propeller. The fuel tanks were located just aft of the engine in front of the cockpit. The production aircraft was powered by an 860 hp Avia HS engine. This engine was built under license in Yugoslavia. Overall performance of the aircraft did not change much, as the engine swap was mainly done to facilitate ease of maintenance.

The IK-2’s armament consisted of two 7.7 cm Darne Mle 1930 machine guns, and one 20 mm Hispano HS-9 cannon. The machine gun’s ammunition load consisted of 250 rounds each, and 60 rounds for the cannon. The cannon fired through the center of the propeller shaft, while the two machine guns were placed on each side of the front of the fuselage. Some IK-2’s had their cannon replaced with a 7.92 Browning machine gun. But by the time of the war, all available aircraft were equipped with the 20 mm cannon.

According to D. Babac, the two Darne Mle 1930 machine guns were at some point replaced with two 7.92 Browning machine guns. In addition, this author notes that the machine guns were placed above the engine compartment and not on the sides.

In War

When the war broke out on the 6th April 1941 the 4th Fighter Regiment had only 8 fully operational aircraft ready for service. Four IK-2’s suffered from mechanical breakdowns and were undergoing repairs at Zemun and Zagreb workshops. Author Z. Rendulić mentioned that only 10 IK-2 were available.

Two IK-2 (With 31 and 34 white painted markings) from the 4th Fighter Regiment were taken at Borongaj airfield in Zagreb in 1940. Note the long groove for the machine gun located above the exhaust pipes. Source: N. Miklušev Maketar Plus

In addition, the 4th Regiment had 18 to 20 Hawker Hurricanes, making this unit among the most up-to-date in the RYAF. On the first day of the war, the IK-2 was mainly used for reconnaissance. The following day, two IK-2s tried to bring down a German reconnaissance aircraft but failed to do so. One IK-2 would be lost, possibly due to mechanical breakdown. The first proper combat engagement of the IK-2 occurred on the 9th of April when during reconnaissance, a group of some 23 Bf 109 were spotted.  While one IK-2 had to land to refuel, the second one provided a delayed action in hopes of giving the 4th Fighter Regiment enough time to muster its available fighters. Shortly after, some 5 or 6 IK-2 and 8 Mk.I Hurricanes joined the fight. The German fighters were attacking in well-coordinated groups, protecting each other, while the Yugoslav fighters entered the battle in a somewhat disorganized manner. After a fierce skirmish that lasted some 10 minutes, the Germans broke off and retreated back to their base of operations in Austria. The Germans lost two aircraft, while the Yugoslavians lost three, one IK-2 and two Hurricanes.  In the next few days, engagements with the enemy were rare, but the IK-2 managed to shoot down one Ju 88, in addition to two other Luftwaffe aircraft.

The 4th Regiment would meet its fate on the 14th of April when the pilots decided to destroy their remaining aircraft in order to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Despite their attempts, the Germans managed to capture one slightly damaged IK-2 belonging to the 4th Fighter Regiment. Four additional aircraft were acquired when the repair workshops in Zagreb and Belgrade were captured.  Some internet sources noted that up to 9 aircraft were captured by the Germans, but this seems highly unlikely and that the number of 5 is probably correct.

While a number of IK-2 were lost due to mechanical failures, the majority would be destroyed by their own crews to prevent them from being captured by the Germans. Source: www.destinationsjourney.com

In NDH Service 

Following the defeat of Yugoslavia, the Independent State of Croatia, a German puppet state was created. In June 1941 a request was made to the Germans to provide over 50 captured Yugoslavian aircraft including the IK-2, in an attempt to create a Croatian Air Force. The Germans were more than willing to give the most obsolete aircraft including four IK-2. The fate of the fifth aircraft is not clear. It may have been cannibalized for spare parts, or even sent to Germany for evaluation, but due to a lack of precise sources, we can not be sure. The Croatian Air Force regularly had problems acquiring spare parts for the Yugoslavian aircraft, as these were either destroyed, sabotaged, or commandeered by the Germans. Surprisingly the IK-2 remained in service for a few years until 1944 when they were finally withdrawn from service. They were rarely used by the Croats who often complained about its poor visibility.  Sadly no IK-2 survived the war, with all likely being scrapped.

Production Versions

  • IK-L1 –  First prototype aircraft that was lost in an accident only a few days after initial trials were conducted
  • IK-02 – The second more successful prototype
  • IK-2 – Production version

Operators

  • Kingdom of Yugoslavia – Eight were used during the April War.
  • Independent State of Croatia NDH – Used four aircraft supplied by the Germans, their service was limited.

Conclusion 

The Ikarus IK-2 was one of the earliest Yugoslavian attempts to develop the first proper fighter aircraft and was intended to replace the aging biplanes then in service with the Yugoslavian Royal Air Force.  While it proved to possess superior performance to biplane fighters, it too was quickly made obsolete by the introduction of new low-wing fighter aircraft. Regardless, the IK-2 was a sound design, which proved that the Yugoslav aviation industry, despite its small size, was capable of producing a viable mono-wing fighter aircraft.

The Ikarus’ powerful engine and impressive armament paved the way for Yugoslavia’s later advanced monoplane, the IK-3. Its performance in key areas gave it an advantage over the Hawker Fury. The IK-2 saw combat against Germany’s advances in the early 1940s before it was ultimately superseded by more advanced aircraft.

IK-2 Specifications

Wingspans 11.4 m / 37 ft 4 in
Length 7.88 m / 25 ft 8 in
Height 3.84  m / 12 ft 6 in
Wing Area 18  m² / 59 ft²
Engine One 860 hp Avia HS12YCrs
Empty Weight 1.500 kg / 3.300 lbs
Maximum Takeoff Weight 1.875 kg / 4.130 lbs
Climb Rate to 5 km In 5 minute 25 seconds
Maximum Speed 450 km/h / 280 mph
Cruising speed 250 km/h / 155 mph
Range 700 km/ miles
Maximum Service Ceiling 12,000 m / 39.370 ft
Crew 1 pilot
Armament
  • Two 7.7 mm machine guns and one 2 cm cannon
Yugoslav IK-2 107 Eskadrila, 34 Grupa, 4 Lovački Puk No.2104
Yugoslav IK-2 107 Eskadrila, 34 Grupa, 4 Lovački Puk No.2108
IK-2 in NDH service

Credits

  • Written by Marko P.
  • Edited by Henry H. & Ed J.
  • Illustrated by Ed J.

Sources

  • T. Likos and D. Čanak (1998) The Croatian Air Force In The Second World War, Nacionalna i Sveučilišna Knjižnica Zagreb
  • V. V. Mikić (2000) Zrakoplovstvo nezavisne države Hrvatske 1941-1945, Target Beograd
  • Č. Janić i O. Petrović (2011) Kratka istorija vazduhoplovstva u Srbiji, Aero Komunikacije
  • D.Babac Elitni vidovi Jugoslovenske vojske u Aprilskom ratu.
  • Z. Rendulić (2014) Lovačka Avijacija 1914-1945, Teovid
  • B. Dimitrijević, M. Micevski and P.  Miladinović (2016) Kraljevstvo Vayduhoplovstvo 1912-1945
  • N. Miklušev (2013) Maketar Plus, IMPS Srbija
  • http://www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs/index.php/istorija/565-ikarus-ik-2

 

Ikarus 453MW

Yugoslavia flag Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia (1952)
Experimental Glider – 1 Prototype Built

The experimental Ikarus 453MW glider. [airwar.ru]
Following the end of the Second World War, the newly created Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army) initiated a series of experimental aircraft design programs. These were intended for testing and gaining valuable experience in new jet propulsion technologies. From this initial work, an unusual new glider project, designated Ikarus 453MW, would emerge. Little is known about the purpose of this glider and its defined role.

The Unusual Glider

After the war, the once-proud Yugoslavian aviation industry was in ruin. Most of its firms had been either looted or destroyed, and many of the pre-war designers and engineers had been killed by the Germans during their retreat. The Allied bombing of Belgrade also inflicted further damage to the Yugoslavian industry’s infrastructure.  However, as the Yugoslav Partisans began liberating the country, some production facilities were slowly restored, as was the case with Ikarus in late 1944. The initial steps of the revitalization effort of the shattered Yugoslavia aviation industry were undertaken in late 1945 by the newly established Yugoslavian Air Force Command. A series of aircraft design teams were set up with the aim of creating a base for the new air force.

By the early 1950’s the overall situation changed to the extent that the Yugoslavian Army officials were ready to test various new technologies and designs. During this time, the Generalna Direkcija Vazduhoplovne Industrije GDVI (Directorate General of the Aviation Industry) led by Dragoljub Bešlin produced a series of experimental aircraft intended to test new design concepts. In 1952, work on an unusual inverted gull “M” shamed wing design began. The design team was also supported by the engineer Levačić. He was an experienced designer who worked with the British Royal Air Force during the war .

In the 1950s a series of experimental aircraft were produced including (from the left to the right side) Ikarus 452-2, 451M jet aircraft, and two prone-operated aircraft the Ikarus 451 and 232  acesflyinghigh.wordpress.com

The precise reasons for its commissioning and its history are not clear, but it appears that the Yugoslav army officials wanted to test a design that could offer a small and fast ground attack aircraft. When the design was ready, Ikarus was asked to construct the first glider prototype. If the glider design proved to have merit, the next step would be to equip this aircraft with a fully functional jet engine. It was designated the Ikarus 453MW, but it is also sometimes referred to as Р-453MW or GDVI-9. To avoid confusion this article will use the Ikarus 453MW designation. The MW  designation was used as the wings highly resemble these letters.

Technical Characteristics 

The Ikarus 453MW was a single-seat, mixed-construction experimental glider. Its fuselage was made of a metal base covered with metal sheets. The wings and tail assembly were made out of wood. The most noticeable characteristic of this glider was the use of unusual inverted gull m-shaped wings. The inverted gull wing design was used during the war by famous aircraft such as the German Ju 87 Stuka Japanese Aichi B7A and the American F4U Corsair. The Ikarus 453MW wings consisted of four parts. The part where the wings folded down was separated by two round-shaped gondolas. The wings were equipped with flaps and ailerons. The rear tail unit consisted of a simple rudder on the vertical stabilizer and did not have horizontal stabilizers.

The retractable landing gear consisted of four wheels. Two smaller wheels were located inside the fairly large wing gondolas. In the lower part of the fuselage, an additional and larger pair of landing wheels was located.

The cockpit was placed to the front of the central fuselage. The canopy was made of plexiglass but besides that, little is mentioned of the cockpit design.

While the experimental glider was unpowered, if successful it was planned to add two unspecified jet engines inside the wing gondolas.

 

The side and top drawing of the Ikarus 453MW. The wing design while unusual was not used on any other Yugoslavian aircraft design. Source: www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs
The Ikarus 453MW had a landing gear consisting of three landing wheels units. Two smaller ones are located in the wing gondolas and one in the central fuselage. Source: www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs

Testing and Cancellation of the Project

The Ikarus 453MW prototype was completed and ready for testing by November 1952. On the 28th of November, the first test flight was made by Metodije Bojković. The test flight was undertaken at the Batajnica Airfield near the capital of Belgrade. Unfortunately for all present, an accident occurred. During take-off, the glider veered off the runway. While the pilot was unharmed the glider was damaged and the test flight had to be temporarily postponed.

After repairs were made, additional aerodynamic wind testing was undertaken to test the overall design shape. As these proved satisfying, another test flight was to take place. The Ikarus 453MW was towed up to 3 km of altitude by an Ikarus 213 and then released. While the flight itself was without problems, another accident occurred during landing. After analysis of available data, it was concluded that the pilot was not to blame as he was not properly instructed on how to fly the Ikarus 453MW which had an unusual wing design. Following the second accident, an order was given by the Yugoslav Army officials to cancel the Ikarus 453MW project.

A Nuclear Carrier

Author  N. Đokić (Projektat Jugoslovenskog Strategijskog Bombardera) gives us an interesting reason for the Ikarus 453MW design. It is a generally lesser-known fact, but during this time, the JNA was highly interested in developing nuclear weapons. The JNA’s involvement in Yugoslavian nuclear research development is to this day still not completely clear. This source mentioned that according to some secret JNA documents, the Ikarus 453MW was intended to be an aircraft that could quickly deliver a nuclear warhead to enemy targets. For this reason, the final aircraft was to be able to carry one 2-ton nuclear warhead at a speed of 850 km/h. The operational range was to be some 2,000 km, and the maximum service ceiling was 11,000 meters. In the meantime, a contingent of F-84G jet aircraft was acquired from the United States. As these were capable of carrying nuclear weapons there was no need to further proceed with the Ikarus 453MW project.

Whether there is any truth to the nuclear weapons plans is difficult to determine. The JNA and the Yugoslavian political hierarchy were publicly known to be quite interested in developing nuclear capability. Of course, this would demand a massive amount of resources, highly trained personnel, and well-developed industrial capacity, all of which Yugoslavia simply lacked in these early years of its existence. Its industrial capacity and infrastructure were almost completely destroyed during the war, and it would likely, if at all possible, take decades of commitment and investment to actually build a nuclear weapon. Hypothetically, even if Yugoslavia was able to develop nuclear weapons in the following decades, all research and experience gained on the Ikarus 453 would be outdated by that time. In conclusion, it could not be ruled out that the JNA had overzealous and ambitious plans to test the concept of using a swift aircraft to deliver this weapon. In reality, Yugoslavia simply lacked any means to actually produce such weapons. Despite this, testing this unusual wing design, albeit in a limited manner, at least provided Yugoslav aircraft engineers with additional experience.

Surviving Model

While unfortunately the Ikarus 453MW glider was not preserved, a small model replica is on display at the Nikola Tesla Serbian Aviation Museum near Belgrade.

The Ikarus 453MW wooden replica is located in the Belgrade Aviation Museum. Source: www.vazduhoplovnetradicijesrbije.rs

Conclusion

The Ikarus 453MW was quite an interesting design mostly due to its unusual wing shape. Its overall history, especially the trials is somewhat obscure. While the prototype was involved in two accidents, this was not the fault of the design but rather poor communication with the pilot, who was not informed of its flight characteristics.

Specification Ikarus 453MW
Wingspan 7.5 m /  24 ft 7 in
Length 5.85 m / 19 ft 2  in
Height 2.01 m /  6 ft 7 in
Maximum Takeoff Weight 1,720 kg / 3,792lbs
Crew One pilot
Armament
  • None

 

Experimental Ikarus 453MW

Credits

  • Written by Marko P.
  • Edited by Henry H. & Ed J.
  • Illustrated by Carpaticus

Sources:

8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37

Nazi flag Nazi Germany (1933)
Anti-Aircraft Gun – 19,650 Built

8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role Source: T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle Panzer Tracts No. Dreaded Threat The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role

With the growing use of aircraft during the First World War, many nations developed their own anti-aircraft weapons. Initially, these were mostly crude adaptations of existing weapons systems. During the interwar period, the development of dedicated anti-aircraft guns was initiated by many armies. Germany, while still under a ban on developing new weapons, would create the 8.8 cm Flak 18 anti-aircraft gun. The gun, while originally designed for the anti-aircraft role, was shown to possess excellent anti-tank firepower. This gun would see action for the first time during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and would continue serving with the Germans up to the end of World War II.

This article covers the use of the 8.8 cm Flak gun in the original anti-aircraft role. To learn more about the use of this gun in its more famous anti-tank role visit the Tank Encyclopedia website.

 

World War One Origins

Prior to the Great War, aircraft first saw service in military operations during the Italian occupation of Libya in 1911. These were used in limited numbers, mostly for reconnaissance, but also for conducting primitive bombing raids. During the First World War,  the mass adoption of aircraft in various roles occurred. One way to counter enemy aircraft was to employ one’s own fighter cover. Despite this, ground forces were often left exposed to enemy bombing raids or reconnaissance aircraft that could be used to identify weak spots in the defense.

To fend off airborne threats, most armies initially reused various artillery pieces, sometimes older, or even captured guns, and modified them as improvised anti-aircraft weapons. This involved employing ordinary artillery guns placed on improvised mounts that enabled them to have sufficient elevation to fire at the sky. These early attempts were crude in nature and offered little chance of actually bringing down an enemy aircraft. But, occasionally, it did happen. One of the first recorded and confirmed aircraft kills using a modified artillery piece happened in September of 1915, near the Serbian city of Vršac. Serbian artilleryman Raka Ljutovac managed to score a direct hit on a German aircraft using a captured and modified 75 mm Krupp M.1904 gun.

A captured Krupp gun was modified to be used for anti-aircraft defense by the Serbian Army during the First World War. Other warring nations also employed similar designs during the war. [telegraf.rs]
On the Western Front, the use of these improvised and crude contraptions generally proved ineffective. Dedicated anti-aircraft guns were needed. This was especially the case for the Germans who lacked fighter aircraft due to insufficient resources and limited production capacity. The Germans soon began developing such weapons. They noticed that the modified artillery pieces were of too small a caliber (anything smaller than 77 mm caliber was deemed insufficient) and needed much-improved velocity and range. Another necessary change was to completely reorganize the command structure, by unifying the defense and offensive air force elements, into a single organizational unit. This was implemented in late 1916. This meant that the anti-aircraft guns were to be separated from ordinary artillery units. The effect of this was that the new anti-aircraft units received more dedicated training and could be solely focused on engaging enemy aircraft.

The same year, trucks armed with 8 to 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns began to appear on the front. While these had relatively good mobility on solid ground, the conditions of the Western Front were generally unsuited for such vehicles, due to difficult terrain. With the development of better anti-aircraft gun designs, their increased weight basically prevented them from being mounted on mobile truck chassis. Instead, for mobility, these were placed on specially designed four-wheeled trailers and usually towed by a K.D.I artillery tractor.

Both Krupp and Ehrhardt (later changing their name to Rheinmetall) would develop their own 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns, which would see extensive action in the later stages of the war. While neither design would have any major impact (besides the same caliber) on the development of the later 8.8 cm Flak, these were the first stepping stones that would ultimately lead to the creation of the famous gun years later.

The Krupp 8.8 cm anti-aircraft gun. [Wiki]
As the newer German anti-aircraft guns became too heavy to be used in more mobile configurations by mounting them on trucks, they had to be towed instead. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World War

Work after the War

Following the German defeat in the First World War, they were forbidden from developing many technologies, including artillery and anti-aircraft guns. To avoid this, companies like Krupp simply began cooperating with other arms manufacturers in Europe. During the 1920s, Krupp partnered with the Swedish Bofors armament manufacturer. Krupp even owned around a third of Bofors’ shares.

The Reichswehr (English: German Ground Army) only had limited anti-aircraft capabilities which relied exclusively on 7.92 mm caliber machine guns. The need for a proper and specialized anti-aircraft gun arose in the late 1920s. In September 1928, Krupp was informed that the Army wanted a new anti-aircraft gun. It had to be able to fire a 10 kg round at a muzzle velocity of 850 m/s. The gun itself would be placed on a mount with a full 360° traverse and an elevation of -3° to 85°. The mount and the gun were then placed on a cross-shaped base with four outriggers. The trailer had side outriggers that were raised during movement. The whole gun when placed on a four-wheeled bogie was to be towed at a maximum speed of 30 km/h. The total weight of the gun had to be around 9 tonnes. These requirements would be slightly changed a few years later to include new requests such as a rate of fire between 15 to 20 rounds per minute, use of high-explosive rounds with a delay fuse of up to 30 seconds, and a muzzle velocity between 800 to 900 m/s. The desired caliber of this gun was also discussed. The use of a caliber in the range of 7.5 cm was deemed to be insufficient and a waste of resources for a heavy gun. But despite this, a 7.5 cm Flak L/60 was developed, but it would not be adopted for service. The 8.8 cm caliber, which was used in the previous war, was more desirable. This caliber was set as a bare minimum, but usage of a larger caliber was allowed under the condition that the whole gun weight would not be more than 9 tonnes. The towing trailer had to reach a speed of 40 km/h (on a good road) when towed by a half-track or, in case of emergency, by larger trucks. The speed of redeployment for these guns was deemed highly important. German Army Officials were quite aware that the development of such guns could take years to complete. Due to the urgent need for such weapons, they were even ready to adopt temporary solutions.

Krupp’s first 8.8 cm Flak 18 prototype. [8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37 Vol.1]
Krupp engineers that were stationed at the Sweden Bofors company were working on a new anti-aircraft gun for some time. In 1931, Krupp engineers went back to Germany, where, under secrecy, they began designing the gun. By the end of September 1932, Krupp delivered two guns and 10 trailers. After a series of firing and driving trials, the guns proved to be more than satisfactory and, with some minor modifications, were adopted for service in 1933 under the name 8.8 cm Flugabwehrkanone 18 (anti-aircraft gun) or, more simply, Flak 18. The use of the number 18 was meant to mislead France and Great Britain that this was actually an old design, which it was in fact not. This was quite commonly used on other German-developed artillery pieces that were introduced to service during the 1930s. The same 8.8 cm gun was officially adopted when the Nazis came to power.  In 1934, Hitler denounced the Treaty of Versailles, and openly announced the rearmament of the German Armed forces.

Production

While Krupp designed the 8.8 cm FlaK 18, aside from building some 200 trailers for it, was not directly involved in the production of the actual gun. The 8.8 cm Flak 18 was quite an orthodox anti-aircraft design, but what made it different was that it could be mass-produced relatively easily, which the Germans did. Most of its components did not require any special tooling and companies that had basic production capabilities could produce these.

Some 2,313 were available by the end of 1938. In 1939, the number of guns produced was only 487, increasing to 1,131 new ones in 1940. From this point, due to the need for anti-aircraft guns, production constantly increased over the coming years. Some 1,861 examples were built in 1941, 2,822 in 1942, 4,302 in 1943, and 5,714 in 1944. Surprisingly, despite the chaotic state of the German industry, some 1,018 guns were produced during the first three months of 1945. In total,  19,650 8.8 cm Flak guns were built.

Of course, like many other German production numbers, there are some differences between sources. The previously mentioned numbers are according to T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle (Dreaded Threat: The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role). Author A. Radić (Arsenal 51) mentions that, by the end of 1944, 16,227 such guns were built. A. Lüdeke (Waffentechnik Im Zweiten Weltkrieg) gives a number of 20,754 pieces being built.

Year Number produced
1932 2 prototypes
1938 2,313 (total produced at that point)
1939 487
1940 1,131
1941 1.861
1942 2.822
1943 4,302
1944 5,714
1945 1,018
Total 19,650

 

Design

The gun 

The 8.8 cm Flak 18 used a single tube barrel that was covered in a metal jacket. The barrel itself was some 4.664 meters (L/56) long. The gun recuperator was placed above the barrel, while the recoil cylinders were placed under the barrel. During firing, the longest recoil stroke was 1,050 mm, while the shortest was 700 mm.

The 8.8 cm gun had a horizontal sliding breechblock which was semi-automatic. It meant that, after each shot, the breach opened on its own and ejected the shell casing, enabling the crew to immediately load another round. This was achieved by adding a spring coil, which was tensioned after firing. This provided a good rate of fire of up to 15 rounds per minute when engaging ground targets and up to 20 rounds per minute for aerial targets. If needed, the semi-automatic system could be disengaged and the whole loading and extracting of rounds done manually. While some guns were provided with a rammer to help during loading the gun, it was sometimes removed by the crew.

This particular gun is equipped with a loading rammer with a new round which is ready to be loaded into the chamber. [Pinterest]
For the anti-tank role, the 8.8 cm Flak was provided with a Zielfernrohr 20 direct telescopic sight. It had 4x magnification and a 17.5° field of view. This meant a 308 m wide view at 1 km. With a muzzle velocity of 840 m/s, the maximum firing range against ground targets was 15.2 km. The maximum altitude range was 10.9 km, but the maximum effective range was around 8 km.

The dimensions of this gun during towing were a length of 7.7 m, width of 2.3 m, and height of 2.4 meters. When stationary, the height was 2.1 m, while the length was 5.8 meters. Weight in firing position, it weighed 5,150 kg, while the total weight of the gun with the carriage was 7,450 kg. Due to some differences in numbers between sources, the previously mentioned 8.8 cm Flak performance is based on T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle (Panzer Tracts Dreaded Threat The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role).

When stationary, the gun had a height of 2.1 meters, which offered a relatively large target for enemy gunners. Good camouflage and well-selected positions were vital for its crew’s survival. [defensemedianetwork.com]

The Gun Controls

The gun elevation and traverse were controlled by using two handwheels located on the right side. The traverse handwheel had an option to be rotated at low or high speed, depending on the need. The lower speed was used for more precise aiming at the targets. The speed gear was changed by a simple lever located at the handwheel. To make a full circle, the traverse operator, at a high-speed setting. needed to turn the handwheel 100 times. while on the lower gear, it was 200 times. With one full circle of the handwheel, the gun was rotated by 3.6° at high speed and 1.8° at low speed.

Next to it was the handwheel for elevation. The handwheel was connected by a series of gears to the elevation pinion. This then moved the elevation rack which, in turn, lowered and raised the gun barrel. Like the traverse handwheel, it also had options for lower and higher rotation speed, which could be selected by using a lever. During transport, in order to prevent potential damage to the gun elevating mechanism, a locking system was equipped. In order to change position from 0° to 85°, at high speed, 42.5 turns of the handwheel were needed. One turn of the wheel at high speed changed the elevation by 2°. At lower speed, 85 times turns of the handwheel were needed. Each turn gave a change of 1°.

The two control handwheels. The front handwheel is for traverse while the rear one is for elevation. Source: W. Muller (1998) The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World Wars, Schiffer Military

Sometimes, in the sources, it is mentioned that the traverse was actually 720°. This is not a mistake. When the gun was used in a static mount, it would be connected with wires to a fire control system. In order to avoid damaging these wires, the guns were allowed to only make two full rotations in either direction. The traverse operator had a small indicator that informed him when two full rotations were made.

The 8.8 cm Flak at its maximum elevation. Source: T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle Panzer Tracts No. Dreaded Threat The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role

The 8.8 cm fuze setter is located on the left side of the gun. Two rounds could be placed for their time fuse settings. These were usually done manually but the gun controls could also be connected to an external control system.

The 8.8 cm fuze setter. [Pinterest]

The Kommandogerat 36

The fire control system Kommandogerat 36 (Stereoscopic Director 36) was an important device when using the 8.8 cm guns in an anti-aircraft role. This piece of equipment actually is a combination of a stereoscopic rangefinder and a director. It uses a 4-meter-long, stereoscopic rangefinder. It has a magnification of 12 to 14x with a reading case ranging from 500 to 50,000 meters. When the unit was being transported, the stereoscopic rangefinder would be disengaged and placed in a long wooden box. If for some reason the Stereoscopic Director 36 was not available or not working, a smaller auxiliary Stereoscopic Director 35 could be used instead.

The 8.8 cm guns were usually used in a square formation consisting of four guns.  Inside this squire was a command post, which would usually have additional range-finding equipment and instruments. These four gun’s positions were also connected to the battery unit command.

The Stereoscopic Director 36 was a vital piece of equipment that provides the necessary acquisitions of targets. [waralbum.ru]
Common 8.8 cm anti-aircraft employment was a square formation with four guns. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World War

Mount

The mount which held the gun barrel itself consisted of a cradle and trunnions. The cradle had a rectangular shape. On its sides, two trunnions were welded. In order to provide stability for the gun barrel, two spring-shaped equilibrations were connected to the cradle using a simple clevis fastener.

Carriage

Given its size, the gun used a large cross-shaped platform. It consisted of the central part, where the base for the mount was located, along with four outriggers. The front and the rear outriggers were fixed to the central base. The gun barrel travel lock was placed on the front outrigger. The side outriggers could be lowered during firing. These were held in place by pins and small chains which were connected to the gun mount. To provide better stability during firing the gun, the crew could dig in the steel pegs located on each of the side outriggers. This cross-shaped platform, besides holding the mount for the main gun, also served to provide storage for various equipment, like the electrical wiring. Lastly, on the bottom of each outrigger, there were four round-shaped leveling jacks. This helped prevent the gun from digging in into the ground, distributing the weight evenly, and to help keep the gun level on uneven ground.

A close-up view of the dismantled 8.8 cm Flak cross-shaped platform. The two folding side outriggers are missing. The central octagonal base would later be replaced with a much simpler square-shaped one. Source: German 88-mm AntiAircraft Gun Materiel, US War Department Technical Manual
The side outriggers could be lowered during firing. In order to provide better stability during firing the gun, the crew could dig in the steel pegs located on each of the side outriggers. At the bottom of each outrigger were round-shaped leveling jacks. Their purpose was to prevent the gun from digging into the ground and to keep the gun level on uneven ground. Source: German 88-mm AntiAircraft Gun Materiel, US War Department Technical Manual
The side outriggers are fully raised during transport. [o5m6.de]
To prevent damaging the gun during transport, a large travel lock was installed on the front outrigger. Source: German 88-mm AntiAircraft Gun Materiel, US War Department Technical Manual

Bogies

The entire gun assembly was moved using a two-wheeled dolly, designated as Sonderanhanger 201. The front part consisted of a dolly with single wheels, while the rear dolly consisted of a pair of wheels per side on a single axle. Another difference between these two was that the front dolly had 7, and the rear had 11 transverse leaf springs. The wheel diameter was the same for the two, at 910 mm. These were also provided with air brakes. While these units were supposed to be removed during firing, the crew would often not remove them, as it was easier to move the gun quickly if needed. This was only possible when engaging targets at low gun elevations. Aerial targets could not be engaged this way, as the recoil would break the axles. The front and rear outriggers would be raised from the ground by using a winch with chains located on the dollies. When raised to a sufficient height, the outriggers would be held in place by dolly’s hooks. These were connected with a round pin, located inside of each of the outriggers.

The two trailer units were connected to the front and rear outriggers by using simple hooks, which would quite easily be disengaged. Source: German 88-mm AntiAircraft Gun Materiel, US War Department Technical Manual
The front view of the Sonderanhanger 201 dolly could be easily identified by the use of only two wheels. The chain’s winch would be used to raise the outriggers. Source: German 88-mm AntiAircraft Gun Materiel, US War Department Technical Manual

Firing with both trailer units still connected to the gun as possible, but it raised the height of the gun and prevented it from engaging air targets. [o5m6.de]
Later, a new improved Sonderanhanger 202 model was introduced (used on the Flak 36 version). On this redesigned version, the two towing units were redesigned to be similar to each other. This was done to ease production but also so the gun could be towed in either direction when needed. While, initially, the dolly was equipped with one set of two wheels and the trailer with two pairs, the new model adopted a doubled-wheeled dolly instead.

Protection

Initially, the 8.8 cm Flak guns were not provided with an armored shield for crew protection. Given its long-range and its intended role as an anti-aircraft gun, this was deemed unnecessary in its early development. Following the successful campaign in the West against France and its Allies in 1940, the Commanding General of the I. Flakkorp requested that all 8.8 cm Flak guns that would be used at on the frontline receive a protective shield. During 1941, most 8.8 cm Flaks that were used on the frontline were supplied with a 1.75 meter high and 1.95 meters wide frontal armored shield. Two smaller armored panels (7.5 cm wide at top and 56 cm at bottom) were placed on the sides. The frontal plate was 10 mm thick, while the two side plates were 6 mm thick. The recuperator cylinders were also protected with an armored cover. The total weight of the 8.8 cm Flak armored plates was 474 kg. On the right side of the large gun shield, there was a hatch that would be closed during the engagement of ground targets. In this case, the gunner would use telescopic sight through the visor port. During engagement of air targets, this hatch was open.

Most guns were initially not provided with a shield. Given its original purpose, this is not surprising. Source: T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle Panzer Tracts. Dreaded Threat The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role
Most guns that were issued for field use would be provided with a large 10 mm thick front armored shield. The wire cover on the top was used for camouflage. Source: T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle Panzer Tracts Dreaded Threat The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/47 in the Anti-Tank role
On the left side of the gun shield, there was a hatch that would be used for the gunner to find his aerial targets. [worldwarphotos.info]

Ammunition

The 88 mm FlaK could use a series of different rounds. The 8.8 cm Sprgr. Patr. was a 9.4 kg heavy high-explosive round with a 30-second time fuze. It could be used against both anti-aircraft and ground targets. When used in the anti-aircraft role, the time fuze was added. The 8.8 Sprgr. Az. was a high-explosive round that had a contact fuze. In 1944 the Germans introduced a slightly improved model that tested the idea of using control fragmentation, which was unsuccessful. The 8.8 Sch. Sprgr. Patr. and br. Sch. Gr. Patr. were shrapnel rounds.

The 8.8 cm Pzgr Patr was a 9.5 kg standard anti-tank round. With a velocity of 810 m/s, it could penetrate 95 mm of 30° angled armor at 1 km. At 2 km at the same angle, it could pierce 72 mm of armor. The 8.8 cm Pzgr. Patr. 40 was a tungsten-cored anti-tank round. The 8.8 cm H1 Gr. Patr. 39 Flak was a 7.2 kg heavy hollow charge anti-tank round. At a 1 kg range, it was able to penetrate 165 mm of armor. The 8.8 cm ammunition was usually stored in wooden or metal containers.

The 8.8 cm Flak used large one-piece ammunition. It was stored in either wooden or metal containers. [defensemedianetwork.com]

Crew

The 88 mm Flak had a crew of 11 men. These included a commander, two gun operators, two fuze setter operators, a loader, four ammunition assistants, and the driver of the towing vehicle. Guns that were used on a static mount usually had a smaller crew. The two gun operators were positioned to the right of the gun. Each of them was responsible for operating a hand wheel, one for elevation and one for the traverse. The front operator was responsible for traverse and the one behind him for elevation. The front traverse operator was also responsible for using the weapon gun sight for targeting the enemy. On the left side of the gun were the two fuse operators. The loader with the ammunition assistants was placed behind the gun. A well-experienced crew needed 2 to 2 and a half minutes to prepare the gun for firing. The time to put the gun into the traveling position was 3.5 minutes. The 8.8 cm gun was usually towed by an Sd.Kfz. 7 half-track or a heavy-duty six-wheel truck.

The 8.8 cm guns that were used for supporting ground units had a fairly large crew. [Pinterest]
The Sd.Kfz. 7 half-tracks were the primary towing vehicles for this gun. [defensemedianetwork.com]
Six-wheeled heavy-duty trucks would sometimes be used due to the lack of half-tracks. They did not offer the same driving performance. [worldwarphotos.info]

Flak 36 and 37

While the Flak 18 was deemed a good design, there was room for improvement. The gun itself did not need much improvement. The gun platform, on the other hand, was slightly modified to provide better stability during firing and to make it easier to produce. The base of the gun mount was changed from an octagonal to a more simple square shape. The previously mentioned  Sonderanhanger 202 was used on this model.

Due to the high rate of fire, anti-aircraft guns frequently had to receive new barrels, as these were quickly worn out. To facilitate quick replacement, the Germans introduced a new three-part barrel. It consists of a chamber portion, a center portion, and the muzzle section. While it made the replacement of worn-out parts easier, it also allowed these components to be built with different metals. Besides this, the overall performance of the Flak 18 and Flak 36 was the same. The Flak 36 was officially adopted on the 8th of February 1939.

As the Germans introduced the new Flak 41, due to production delays, some of the guns were merged with the mount of a Flak 36. A very limited production run was made of the 8.8 cm Flak 36/42, which entered service in 1942.

In 1942, the improved 88 mm Flak 37 entered mass production according to T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle. On the other hand J. Ledwoch (8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37 Vol.1 Wydawnictwo Militaria 155) state that the Flak 37 was introduced to service way back in 1937. Visually, it was the same as the previous Flak 36 model. The difference was that this model was intended to have better anti-aircraft performance, having specially designed directional dials. The original gunner dials were replaced with the “follow-the-pointer” system. It consists of two sets of dials that are placed on the right side of the gun. These received information about the enemy targets from a remote central fire direction post connected electrically. This way, the gun operator only had to make slight adjustments, such as elevation, and fire the gun.

The necessary information about the enemy targets was provided by a Funkmessgerate ( Predictor) which was essentially a mechanical analog computer. Once the enemy aircraft were spotted, their estimated speed and direction were inserted into this computer which would then calculate the precise position and elevation. This information would be sent to any linked anti-aircraft batteries by a wire connection. One set of the dials would then show the crew the necessary changes that need to be done to the elevation and direction of the enemy approach. The crew then had to manually position the gun elevation and direction until the second dials indicators matched the first one. The funkmessgerate computer also provided correct fuse time settings. In principle, this system eased the aiming task of the crew and at the same time improved accuracy. When used in this manner the Flak 37 could not be used for an anti-tank role.

The last change to this series was the reintroduction of a two-piece barrel design. Besides these improvements, the overall performance was the same as with the previous models. From March 1943 only the Flak 37 would be produced, completely replacing the older models.

The 8.8 cm Flak 37 introduced the use of specially designed directional dials, which help the crew better adjust the gun. Source: Norris 8.8 cm FlaK 16/36/37/ 41 and PaK 43 1936-45

Organization 

German air defense was solely the responsibility of the Luftwaffe, with the majority of 8.8 cm guns being allocated to them. The German Army and Navy also possessed some anti-aircraft units, but these were used in quite limited numbers. The largest units were the Flak Korps (Anti-aircraft corps). It consisted of two to four Flak Divisionen (Anti-aircraft divisions). These divisions, depending on the need, were either used as mobile forces or for static defense. These were further divided into Bigaden (brigades ) which consisted of two or more Regimenter (Regiments). Regiments in turn were divided into four to six Abteilunge (Battalion). Battalion strength was eight 8.8 cm guns with 18 smaller 2 cm guns. To complicate things a bit more, each Battalion could be divided into four groups: Leichte (Light, equipped with calibers such as 2 cm or 3.7 cm), Gemischte (mixed light and heavy), Schwere (Heavy equip with a caliber greater than 88 mm) and Scheinwerfer  (Searchlight).

Mobile War

Initially, operations and crew training was carried out by the Reichswehr. They were organized into the so-called Fahrabteilung (Training Battalion) to hide their intended role. By 1935, the German Army underwent a huge reorganization, one aspect of which was changing its name to the Wehrmacht. In regard to the anti-aircraft protection, it was now solely the responsibility of the Luftwaffe. For this reason, almost all available 8.8 cm guns were reallocated to Luftwaffe control. Only around eight Flak Battalions which were armed with 2 cm anti-aircraft guns were left under direct Army control.

In Spain

When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Francisco Franco, leader of the Nationalists, sent a plea to Adolf Hitler for German military equipment aid. To make matters worse for Franco, nearly all his loyal forces were stationed in Africa. As the Republicans controlled the Spanish navy, Franco could not move his troops back to Spain safely. So he was forced to seek foreign aid. Hitler was keen on helping Franco, seeing Spain as a potential ally, and agreed to provide assistance. At the end of July 1936, 6 He 51 and 20 Ju 57 aircraft were transported to Spain under secrecy. These would serve as the basis for the air force of the German Condor Legion which operated in Spain during this war. The German ground forces operating in Spain were supplied with a number of 8.8 cm guns.

These arrived in early November 1936 and were used to form the F/88 anti-aircraft battalion. This unit consisted of four heavy and two light batteries. Starting from March 1937 these were allocated to protect various defense points at Burgos and Vittoria. In March 1938, the 8.8 cm guns from the 6th battery dueled with an enemy 76.2 cm anti-aircraft gun which were manned by French volunteers from the International Brigades. While the 8.8 cm guns were mainly employed against ground targets they still had a chance to fire at air targets. For example, while defending the La Cenia airfield, the 8.8 cm guns from the 6th battery prevented the Republican bombing attack by damaging at least two SB-2 bombers on the 10th of June 1938. Three days later one SB-2 was shot down by an 8.8 cm gun. In early August another SB-2 was shot down by the same unit. The performance of the 8.8 cm gun during the war in Spain was deemed satisfying. It was excellent in ground operations, possessing good range and firepower.

An 8.8 cm Flak gun in Spain.[weaponsandwarfare.com]

During the Second World War

Prior to the war, the 8.8 m guns could be often seen on many military parades, exercises, and ceremonies. The first ‘combat’ use of the 8.8 cm Flak in German use was during the occupation of the Sudetenland in 1938. The entire operation was carried out peacefully and the 8.8 cm gun did not have to fire in anger.

Prior to the war, the 8.8 cm guns war could have been often seen on military parades, exercises, and ceremonies. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World Wars

The Polish campaign saw little use of the 8.8 cm guns. The main reason for this was that the Polish Air Force was mostly destroyed in the first few days of combat. They were mainly used against ground targets. In one example, the 8.8 cm guns from the 22nd Flak Regiment tried to prevent a Polish counter-attack at Ilza. The battery would be overrun while the crew tried to defend themselves, losing three guns in the process. The 8.8 cm Flak gun also saw service during the battles for Warsaw and Kutno.

The 8.8 cm followed the Germans in their occupation of Denmark and Norway. One of the key objectives in Norway was the capture of a number of airfields. Once captured, the Germans rushed in Flak guns including the 8.8 cm, to defend these as they were crucial for the rather short-ranged German bombers. On the 12th of April 1940, the British Air Force launched two (83 strong in total) bombing raids at the German ships which were anchored at the Stavanger harbor. Thanks to the Flak and fighter support, six Hampden and three Wellington bombers were shot down.

Following the conclusion of the Polish campaign, the Germans began increasing the numbers of the motorized Flak units. Some 32 Flak Batteries were available which the Germans used to form the 1st and 2nd Flak Corps. 1st Corps would be allocated to the Panzergruppe Kleist, while the second was allocated to the 4th and 6th Army. The Luftwaffe, as in Poland (September 1939), quickly gained air superiority over the Allied Air Forces. Despite this, there was still opportunity for the 8.8 cm guns to fire at air targets.  During the period from the 10th to 26th May 1940, the following successes were made against enemy aircraft by flak units that were part of the XIX Armee Corps: the 83rd Flak Battalion brought down some 54, 92nd Flak Battalion 44, 71th Flak Battalion 24, the 91st Flak Battalion 8, 36th Flak Regiment 26, 18th Flak Regiment 27, and 38th Flak Regiment 23 aircraft. During the notorious German crossing near Sedan, a combined Allied air force tried to dislodge them. The strong Flak presence together with air fighter cover, lead to the Allies losing 90 aircraft in the process.

Following the Western Campaign, the 8.8 cm guns would see extensive service through the war. Ironically they would be more often employed against enemy armor than in the original role. Given the extensive Allied bombing raids, more and more 8.8 cm would be allocated to domestic anti-aircraft defense. One major use of 8.8 cm Flak was during the German evacuation of Sicily, by providing necessary air cover for the retreating Axis soldiers and materiel to the Italian mainland.

In the occupied Balkans, the 8.8 cm Flak was a rare sight until late 1943 and early 1944. The ever-increasing Allied bombing raids forced the Germans to reinforce their positions with a number of anti-aircraft guns, including the 8.8 cm Flak. Some 40 8.8 cm Flak guns were used to protect German-held Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia. Most would be lost after a successful liberation operation conducted by the Red Army supported by Yugoslav Partisans. The 8.8 cm Flak guns were also used in static emplacements defending the Adriatic coast at several key locations from 1943 on. One of the last such batteries to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans was the one stationed in Pula, which had twelve 8.8 cm guns. It continued to resist the Partisans until the 8th of May, 1945.

Some of the 8.8 cm guns were destroyed or abandoned. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 51

Defense of the Fatherland

While the 8.8 cm Flaks would see service supporting the advancing German forces, the majority of them would actually be used as static anti-aircraft emplacements. For example, during the production period of October 1943 to November 1944, around 61% of the 8.8 cm Flak guns produced were intended for static defense. Additionally, of 1,644 batteries that were equipped with this gun, only 225 were fully motorized, with an additional 31 batteries that were only partially motorized (start of September 1944).

When the war broke out with Poland, the Luftwaffe anti-aircraft units had at their disposal some 657 anti-aircraft guns of various calibers. The majority were the 8.8 cm with smaller quantities of the larger 10.5 cm and even some captured Czezh 8.35 anti-aircraft guns. An additional 12 Flak Companies equipped with the 8.8 cm guns were given to the navy for the protection of a number of important harbors. The remaining guns were used to protect vital cities like Berlin and Hamburg. The important Ruhr industry center was also heavily defended.

The majority of the 8.8 cm Flak guns built would be used in static defense without the cross-shaped platform. These would mostly be destroyed by their crews to prevent their capture when the Allies made their advances into Germany. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World Wars

One of the first enemy aircraft shot down over German skies were British Wellington bombers. This occurred on the 4th of September 1939 when one or two enemy bombers were brought down by heavy Flak fire. These intended to bomb vital German naval ports. In early October 1939, in Strasbourg, a French Potez 637 was shot down by the 84th Flak Regiments 8.8 cm guns. One Amiot 143 and a Whitley aircraft were shot down in Germany in mid-October. During December 1939 British launched two bombing raids intended to inflict damage on German ports. Both raids failed with the British losing some 17 out of 36 Wellington bombers.

After Germany’s victory over the Western Allies in June, the Germans began forming the first Flak defense line in occupied territories and coastlines. These  were not only equipped with German guns but also with those captured from enemy forces.

A 8.8 cm by the Atlantic coast in 1941. This crew had already achieved two kills, judging by the kill marks on the barrel. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World Wars

Due to the poor results of their daylight bombing raids, the British began to employ night raids. These initially were quite unsuccessful with minimal damage to Germany’s infrastructure and industry. The Flak defense of Germany was also quite unprepared for night raids, unable to spot enemy bombers at night. The situation changed only in 1940 with the introduction of ground-operated radar. Thanks to this, the first few months of 1941 saw German Flak units bring down 115 enemy aircraft.

In 1942 the British military top made a decision to begin the mass bombing of German cities. The aim was to “de-house” (or kill) workers, damage infrastructure to make urban industrial areas unusable, and try and cause a moral collapse as was the case in 1918. Implementation of this tactic was initially slow due to an insufficient number of bombers. In addition, vital targets in occupied Europe were also to be bombed. In May 1942, the British launched a force that consisted of over 1,000 aircraft causing huge damage to Germany, killing 486 and injuring over 55,000 people.

In 1943 several huge events happened. The German defeats in East and North Africa led to huge material and manpower losses, while the Allies were preparing to launch massive bombing raids mainly intended to cripple Germany’s production capabilities. In response, the Germans began increasing their number of Flak units. At the start of 1943, there were some 659 heavy Flak batteries, which were increased to  1,089 by June the same year. Due to a lack of manpower, the Germans began mobilizing their civilians regardless of their age or sex. For example, in 1943 there were some 116,000 young women who were employed in various roles, even operating the guns. Near the end of the war, it was common to see all-female crews operating Flak batteries. In addition in 1944 some 38,000 young boys were also employed in this manner. Ironically, while all German military branches lacked equipment, the anti-aircraft branch had spare equipment and guns, but lacked the manpower to operate them. To resolve this, foreign Volunteers and even Soviet prisoners of war were pressed into service. The downside was the general lack of training, which greatly affected their performance.

In the first few months of 1944, the Allied 8th and 15th Air Forces lost some 315 bombers with 10,573 damaged, all attributed to the heavy Flak. In 1944 (date unspecified in the source) during an attack on the heavily defended Leuna synthetic oil refinery, some 59 Allied bombers were brought down by the heavy Flak guns. By 1944 the number of heavy anti-aircraft guns that were intended for the defense of Germany reached 7,941. By April 1945 the Flak guns managed to shoot down 1,345 British bombers. The American 8th lost 1,798, while the 15th Air Force lost 1,046 bombers due to German Flak defence by the end of the war.

The last action of the 8.8 cm Flak guns was during the defense of the German capital of Berlin. Due to most being placed in fixed positions, they could not be evacuated and most would be destroyed by their own crews to prevent capture. Despite the losses suffered during the war, in February 1945, there were still some 8,769 8.8 cm Flak guns available for service.

The Flak provided necessary and crucial defense of vital industrial centers. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World Wars

Effectiveness of the 8.8 cm Guns in Anti-aircraft Role

Regarding the effectiveness of the 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns with the necessary number of rounds needed to bring down enemy aircraft. Author E.B. Westermann (Flak German Anti-Aircraft Defenses 1914-1945) gives us a good example and comparison between three main German anti-aircraft guns. The largest 12.8 cm Flak on average fired some 3,000 rounds to take down an enemy aircraft. The 10.5 cm gun needed 6,000 and the 8.8 cm 15,000 rounds (some sources mentioned 16,000). This seems at first glance like a huge waste of available resources, but is it right to conclude that?

According to an Allied war document dated from early 1945, they mentioned a few interesting facts about German flak defense. According to them, in 1943 some 33% of bombers destroyed by Germany were accredited to heavy Flak gunfire. In addition, 66% of damage sustained by their aircraft was also caused by the heavy Flak fire. In the summer of 1944, this number increased. The majority (some 66%) shot down enemy bombers were accredited to the heavy Flaks. And of 13,000 damaged bombers some 98% were estimated to be caused by the Flaks. Here it is important to note that by this time, Luftwaffe fighters lacked the ability to attack bomber formations en mass. Therefore this increase of aircraft shot down by the Flaks may be explained by this.

In addition, we must also take into account two other functions that these guns had which are often overlooked. They did not necessarily need to bring down enemy bombers. It was enough to force the enemy fly at higher altitudes to avoid losses. This in turn led to a huge loss of accuracy for the bombers. Secondly, the enemy bombers were often forced to break formation when sustaining heavy Flak fire, which left them exposed to German fighters. The shrapnel from the Flak rounds could not always directly bring down a bomber, but it could cause sufficient damage (fuel leaks for example) that the aircraft, later on, had to make an emergency landing, even in enemy territory. The damaged aircraft that made it back to their bases could spend considerable time awaiting repairs. Lastly, the Flak fire could incapacitate, wound or even kill bomber crews. Thus there was a huge psychological effect on enemy bomber crews. B-17 gunner Sgt W. J. Howard from the 100th Bomb Group recalled his experience with the German Flak. “All the missions scared me to death. Whether you had fighters or not you still had to fly through the flak. Flak was what really got you thinking, but I found a way to suck it up and go on.”

Hitler was quite impressed with the 8.8 cm performance. On the 28th of August 1942, he stated:  “The best flak gun is the 8.8 cm. The 10.5 has the disadvantage that it consumes too much ammunition, and the barrel does not hold up very long. The Reich Marshall Göring continually wants to build the 12.8 into the flak program. This double-barreled 12.8 cm has a fantastic appearance. If one examines the 8.8 from a technician’s perspective, it is to be sure the most beautiful weapon yet fashioned, with the exception of the 12.8 cm”.

Despite the best German efforts, the Flak’s effectiveness greatly degraded by late 1944. The reason for this was the shortage of properly trained crews. At the start of the war, the Germans paid great attention to crew training, which lasted several months. As the Flak guns were needed on the front, less experienced and trained personnel had to be used instead. In the later stages of the war, these crews received only a few weeks of training, which was insufficient for the job they had to perform. Lastly, Allied bombing raids eventually took their toll on German industry, greatly reducing the production of ammunition, which was one of the main reasons why the anti-aircraft defense of Germany ultimately failed. Of course, a proper analysis and conclusion could not be easily made and would require more extensive research, a wholly different topic on its own.

Self-Propelled Versions

When used as anti-aircraft weapons, the 8.8 cm guns were in most cases used as static defense points. Despite this, the Germans made several attempts to increase their mobility by placing the 8.8 cm guns on various chassis. One of the first attempts was by mounting the 8.8 cm gun on a VOMAG 6×6 truck chassis. The small number built was given to the 42nd Flak Regiment which operated them up to the end of the war.

The VOMAG truck was armed with 8.8 cm guns. Source: W. Muller The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World War

The truck chassis offered great mobility on good roads, but their off-road handling was highly problematic. So Germans used half-tracks and full-track chassis.  Smaller numbers of Sd. Kfz 9 armed with the 8.8 cm gun were built. Attempts to build a full-track vehicle were made but never went beyond a prototype stage. The 8.8 cm Flak auf Sonderfahrgestell was a project where an 8.8cm gun was mounted on a fully tracked chassis with a folding wall, but only one vehicle would be built.  There are some photographs of Panzer IV modified with this gun, and while not much is known about them they appear to be a field conversion, rather than dedicated design vehicles. There were even proposals to mount an 8.8 cm gun on a Panther tank chassis, but nothing would come from it in the end.

Some 12 Sd. Kfz. 9 were modified by receiving an 8.8 cm gun. [worldwarphotos.info]
The 8.8 cm Flak auf Sonderfahrgestell Pz.Sfl.IVc prototype.[uofa.ru]
The strange-looking Panzer IV armed with this gun. [armedconflicts.com]
Mounting the 8.8 cm gun on railroad cars was a common sight in Germany at early stages of the war. There was various design that may differ greatly from each other. [defensemedianetwork.com]

Usage after the war

With the defeat of Germany during the Second World War, the 8.8 cm Flak guns found usage in a number of other armies. Some of these were Spain, Portugal, Albania, and Yugoslavia. By the end of the 1950s, the Yugoslavian People’s Army had slightly less than 170 8.8 cm guns in its inventory. These were, besides their original anti-aircraft role, used to arm navy ships and were later placed around the Adriatic coast. A number of these guns would be captured and used by various warring parties during the Yugoslav civil wars of the 1990s. Interestingly, the Serbian forces removed the 8.8 cm barrel on two guns and replaced them with two pairs of 262 mm Orkan rocket launcher tubes. The last four operational examples were finally removed from service from the Serbian and Montenegrin Army in 2004.

The 8.8 cm Flak in the Yugoslavian People’s Army service, during military training near the capital in 1955. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 51
Two 8.8 cm Flak guns were reused by replacing the gun with two 262mm rocket launchers. While not a success, these two remained in use up to 1998. [srpskioklop.paluba.info]

Conclusion

The 8.8 cm Flak was an extraordinary weapon that provided the German Army with much-needed firepower during the early stages of the war. The design as a whole was nothing special, but it had a great benefit in that it could be built relatively cheaply and in great numbers. That was probably its greatest success, being available in huge numbers compared to similar weapons of other nations.

Its performance in the anti-aircraft role was deemed satisfying, but still stronger models would be employed to supplement its firepower. The 8.8 cm anti-air gun’s effectiveness was greatly degraded toward the end of the war, which was caused not by the gun design itself but other external forces. These being mainly the lack of properly trained crews and shortages of ammunition.

8.8 cm Flak 18 Specifications:
Crew: 11 (Commander, two gun operators, two fuze setter operators, loader, four ammunition assistants, and the driver)
Weight in firing position: 5150 kg
Total weight:  7450 kg.
Dimensions in towing position: Length 7.7  m, Width 2.2 m, Height 2.4 m,
Dimensions in deployed position: Length 5.8  m, Height 214 m,
Primary Armament:  8.8 cm L/56 gun
Elevation: -3° to +85°  

 

Gallery

The Flak 88 mm gun in towing postion

 

Flak 88 in firing position

Credits

  • Written by Marko P.
  • Edited by by Ed Jackson & Henry H.
  • Illustrations by David B.

Sources

  • J. Norris  (2002) 8.8 cm FlaK 16/36/37/ 41 and PaK 43 1936-45 Osprey Publishing
  • D. Nijboer (2019) German Flak Defences Vs. Allied Heavy Bombers 1942-45, Osprey Publishing
  • T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle  Panzer Tracts No. Dreaded Threat The 8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/41 in the Anti-Tank role
  •  T.L. Jentz and H.L. Doyle (2014) Panzer Tracts No. 22-5 Gepanzerter 8t Zugkraftwagen and Sfl.Flak
  • W. Muller (1998) The 8.8 cm FLAK In The First and Second World Wars, Schiffer Military
  • E. D. Westermann (2001) Flak, German Anti-Aircraft Defense 1914-1945, University Press of Kansas.
  • German 88-mm AntiAircraft Gun Materiel (29th June 1943) War Department Technical Manual
  • T. Anderson (2018) History of Panzerwaffe Volume 2 1942-45, Osprey publishing
  • T. Anderson (2017) History of Panzerjager Volume 1 1939-42, Osprey publishing
  • S. Zaloga (2011) Armored Attack 1944, Stackpole book
  • W. Fowler (2002) France, Holland and Belgium 1940, Allan Publishing
  • 1ATB in France 1939-40, Military Modeling Vol.44 (2014) AFV Special
  • N, Szamveber (2013) Days of Battle Armored Operation North of the River Danube, Hungary 1944-45
  • A. Radić (2011) Arsenal 51 and 52
  • While A. Lüdeke, Waffentechnik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Parragon
  •  J. Ledwoch 8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37 Vol.1 Wydawnictwo Militaria 155
  • S. H. Newton (2002)  Kursk The German View, Da Capo Press
  • W. Howler (2002 France, Belgium and Holland 1940, Ian Allan
  • J. S. Corum (2021) Norway 1940 The Luftwaffe’s Scandinavian Blitzkrieg, Osprey Publishing
  • https://uofa.ru/en/zenitnoe-orudie-88-vermaht-strashnaya-vosemdesyat-vosmaya/

 

Weiss Manfred WM 21 Sólyom

Hungarian Flag Kingdom of Hungary (1938)
Reconnaissance Aircraft & Light Bomber – 128 Built

The Weiss Manfrédfrom WM 21 two-seat reconnaissance aircraft. [lasegundaguerra.com]
The Hungarian Aviation industry was rather small in scope in comparison to many in Europe. Regardless, it managed to introduce a number of domestic development projects. One of these was the Weiss Manfréd from WM 21, a two-seat reconnaissance aircraft of which some 128 were produced during the Second World War.

History

In the years after the First World War, Hungary was strictly forbidden from developing combat aircraft. To overcome this limitation, the Hungarians did what the Germans did and began developing a civil aircraft industry to help gain valuable experience in aircraft design. One of these companies that would emerge during the late 1920s was Weiss Manfréd, from Csepel near Budapest. In 1928 this company began working on the design and construction of gliders and engines.

Due to an initial lack of funds, the Hungarian Air Force was forced to rely on foreign aircraft that were bought in relatively small numbers. For example, by 1937 Hungarians had only around 255 operational aircraft. To help gain more experience, Weiss Manfrédfrom began producing Fokker F.VIII and C.V aircraft under license. When sufficient funds and experience were gained, Weiss Manfrédfrom engineers in 1935 began working on a new reconnaissance biplane design.  They decided on a simple design, reusing some components that were already in production, and it would be a further development of the already produced WM 16 model, which was heavily based on the D version of the Fokker C.V.

The WM 21 predecessor was the WM 16 model which in turn was based on the C.V aircraft. [Wiki]
When the prototype of the new short-range reconnaissance aircraft, WM 21 “Sólyom” (Falcon) was completed, it was presented to Hungarian Air Force officials, who were generally satisfied with its performance and gave an order for some 36 WM 21 in 1938. At that time, massive funds were being allocated to the development of the aircraft industry. In addition, Hungarian Air Force officials wanted to decentralize aircraft production. For this reason, the WM 21 was to be built by various other companies, including twelve to be built by MÁVAG  and MWG

It was estimated that the production would commence during April and March 1939. It took longer to do so, with the first aircraft being available at the end of 1939. While the aircraft was slowly put into production, the Hungarian Air Force asked for more aircraft to be built.

In Combat

The WM 21 was primarily designed as a reconnaissance aircraft but due to a general lack of other aircraft types, it would be adopted for other roles. Its first combat use was during the so-called Transylvanian Crisis. Namely, in June 1940 Hungarian government demanded that Romania return the Transylvania region to them. Since it looked like war was coming, Hungarian Air Force began relocating its aircraft close to the Romanian border. Thanks to the commencement of negotiations, no war broke out. But by late August the Hungarians ordered a complete mobilization as the negotiation led nowhere.

While primarily intended to be used as a reconnaissance airfare it would be also used in other roles even as a light bomber. [lasegundaguerra.com]
Germany did not want to lose its vital Romanian oil supply and forced both countries to begin new negotiations under German and Italian supervision. While the negotiations were underway, some smaller air skirmishes occurred. On the 27th of August, a Romanian He 112 attacked a Hungarian Ca 135 aircraft, which was heavily damaged and one crew member was killed. The following day a WM-21 piloted by Captain János Gyenesin, dropped bombs on the Romain Szatmárnémeti airfield in retaliation for the lost airman. On its way back it crash-landed, damaging the aircraft. In the end, Hungary emerged as the victor, gaining large territorial concessions over the Romanians.

When the April War broke out on the 6th of April 1941, between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Axis, the Hungarians joined the offensive. They employed their 1st Air Brigade which had some 60 aircraft. By the 17th of April, the war was over, and the Hungarian Air Force had lost 6 aircraft including one WM 21.

A colorized picture of the WM 21 rearview. [all-aero.com]
On the 26th of June 1941, the Hungarian town of Kassa was bombed by three aircraft. The circumstance of this incident is not clear even to this day, but the Hungarian government asserted that it was a Soviet attack. The decision was made to declare war on the Soviet Union as a response.  For the initial operation in the war against the Soviets, the Hungarian Air Force allocated 25 bombers (Ju 86 and Ca 135), 18 CR 42 fighters, and the 8th and 10th reconnaissance squadrons each equipped with 9 WM 21.

By 1942 most WM 21’s were allocated for use by training schools and as liaisons. Some would be used in later years for anti-partisan operations. By the end of the war, some WM 21 pilots managed to reach Austria where they hoped to surrender to the Western Allies.

Technical Characteristics 

The WM 21 was a mixed-construction, biplane aircraft, designed to fulfill multiple roles. The fuselage and the wings were of metal construction which was covered in fabric. The lower and the upper wings were connected with each other by one “N” shaped metal strut on each side. In addition, there were two “V” shaped metal brackets that were connected with the fuselage and the upper wing.  Lastly, there were two larger metal struts on each side that connected the landing gears to the top wing.

The WM 21 was a biplane two-seater aircraft. The lower and upper wings were held in place by various smaller metal bars, connecting them to each other and to the fuselage. [all-aero.com]
The landing gear consisted of two fixed road wheels and a rear-positioned landing skid. Partly-covered front wheels were connected to the aircraft fuselage by three large metal bins.

Initially, the WM 21 was powered by an 870 hp Weiss WM K-14A radial piston engine. With this engine, the WM 21 could reach a maximum speed of 320 km/h. Later produced aircraft were equipped with a stronger 1,000 hp WM K-14B engine. With this engine, the maximum speed was increased to 380 km/h.

The pilot and the observer/machine gunner were placed in two separate open cockpits, the front for the pilot, and the rear for the observer.  For better downward visibility the observer was provided with two fairly large glass panels, placed just under him on both fuselage sides.

Side view of the WM 21. Note the small glass panel located under the observer cockpit. [lasegundaguerra.com]
The WM 21 was armed with two forward-firing 7.92 mm Gebauer machine guns. One additional defensive machine gun was placed in a flexible mount which was installed in the rear cockpit. Additionally, the offensive capabilities of the aircraft could be increased by adding bombs. The bomb bay was placed between the two crew members. To release the bomb the crews would use a release mechanism. The bomb load could consist either of 12 10kg anti-personnel bombs, or 60 1kg incendiary bombs. Later versions increased the bomb load to around 300 kg.

To the rear an additional 7.92 mm Gebauer machine gun was placed in a rotating mount for self-defense. [airwar.ru]

Production and Modifications

The WM 21 was produced in four small series. When the production ended in 1942 some 128 aircraft would be constructed. While designed by Manfred Weiss, this factory produced only 25 aircraft. The MAVAG produced 43 with the 60 being built by MWG. Due to the relatively low production numbers, only one modification of the original aircraft was ever made:

  •  WM 21A – Powered with an 870 hp Weiss WM K-14A engine,
  • WM 21B – Slightly improved version powered by 1.000 hp  WM K-14B engine
Some 128 WM 21 would be built by 1942 when the production ended. [all-aero.com]

Conclusion

The WM 21 was a Hungarian reconnaissance aircraft that would see service on several different fronts. While initially used in its intended role, it quickly became obsolete and was allocated to secondary missions, as a training aircraft or for liaison missions. Due to a lack of adequate aircraft, some WM 21would even see service as combat aircraft against Partisans forces, mostly in the Soviet Union.

WM-21A Specifications
Wingspan 12.9 m / 42 ft 4 in
Length 9.65 m / 31 ft 8 in
Height 3.5 m / 11 ft 5 in
Wing Area 32.75 m² / 352.53 ft²
Engine One 870 hp (649 kW) Weiss WM K-14A radial piston engine
Empty Weight 2,450 kg / 5,400 lb
Maximum Takeoff Weight 7,606 kg / 3,450 lb
Maximum Speed 320 km/h / 200 mph
Cruising Speed 275 km/h / 170 mph
Range 750 km / 466 mi
Maximum Service Ceiling 8,000m / 26,245 ft
Climb speed Climb to 6,000 m (19,700 ft) in 7 minutes and 30 seconds
Crew One pilot
Armament
  • Three 7.92mm machine guns
  • Total bomb load of some 100-300kg

Gallery

Weiss Manfred WM 21 “Sólyom”

Credits

  • Written by: Marko P.
  • Edited by:
  • Illustrations by Carpaticus

Sources:

  • D. Monday (1984, 2006) The Hamlyn Concise Guide To Axis Aircraft Of World War II, Aerospace Publishing Ltd.
  • G. Sarhidai, G. Punka, and V. Kozlik (1996) Hungarian Eagles, Hikoki Publication
  • G. Punka (1994) Hungarian Air Force, Squadron Publication
  • S. Renner. (2016) Broken Wings The Hungarian Air Force, 1918-45, Indiana University Press
  • http://all-aero.com/index.php/56-planes-v-w/15565-weiss-wm-21-solyom 

 

 

 

 

 

Fiat G.50 in Independent State of Croatia Service

Independent State of Croatia flag Independent State of Croatia (1942)
Fighter –  16 Operated

In NDH service the Fiat G.50 did not receive any modifications, with the original Italian camouflage remaining. The only change was the addition of Croatian military markings and new identification numbers. [Wiki]
Following the creation of the Nezavisna Država Hrvatska (Independent State of Croatia), its Air Force was plagued with many problems from the start, including a lack of modern aircraft. While generally heavily reliant on the Germans to provide them with better equipment, they were unwilling to secure any deliveries of aircraft. To resolve this issue the NDH’s Air Force officials managed to persuade Italy to sell them 10 Fiat G.50bis fighters, which remained in use up to 1945.

A Brief History of the NDH

Following the end of the First World War, Kraljevina Srba Hrvata i Slovenaca (The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes – SHS) was formed in December of 1918 with the aim of uniting all Southern Slavs. This new state was, at least in theory, based on the principles of equality for these three nationalities. In reality, this Kingdom was a politically and ethically divided country. During the 1920s, there were huge political disagreements between the major parties which brought about questions regarding the continued existence of the Kingdom of SHS. This division was especially noted between the Serbian and Croatian politicians, which ultimately culminated in the assassination of several Croatian Peasant Party members, including the leader, Stjepan Radić, by a Serbian Politician in 1928.

On 6th of January, 1929, King Aleksandar Karađorđević, in an attempt to avoid the incoming political crisis, led the country into a dictatorship by abolishing parliament. He also introduced a number of political changes, including changing the name of the country to Kraljevina Jugoslavija (Kingdom of Yugoslavia.) This essentially did not resolve any of the existing problems, as inter-ethnic tensions persisted. During the early 1930s, the first mentions of Croatian Ustaše (the precise meaning is unknown, but could be roughly translated as insurgent) ultranationalist revolutionary organizations began to appear in Yugoslavia. Their main aim was the liberation of the Croatian people from Yugoslavia, by all means necessary, even by force. One of the most prominent figures of this organization was Ante Pavelić.

Ante Pavelić was a high-ranking Ustaša member from the start, and later de facto leader of the NDH. [Wiki]
The Ustaše organization participated in the assassination of the Yugoslav King, Alexander Karađorđević, in Marseille in 1934. This assassination backfired to some extent for the Ustaše organization. Not only did it not lead to the collapse of Yugoslavia, but relations with Italy also improved under the Regent Prince Pavle Karađorđević in the following years. This led the Italian authorities to effectively end their support for the Ustaše and even arrested some of its members, including Pavelić.

After years of inactivity, the Ustaše benefited when the Yugoslavian government, which supported the Axis, was overthrown by pro-Allied officers in a military coup at the end of March 1941. Adolf Hitler almost immediately issued an order that Yugoslavia should be occupied. The Italians, preparing to join the war against Yugoslavia, began to support the Croatian Ustaše movement once again. With the collapse of the later Kingdom of Yugoslavia during the Axis invasion after the short April War of 1941, Croatia, with German aid, was finally able to declare independence, albeit becoming a fascist puppet state. Ante Pavelić was chosen as the leader of this puppet state. Officially, the NDH was announced on 10th April 1941. The new state received a significant territorial expansion by annexing most of western Yugoslavia, including Bosnia, parts of Serbia, and Montenegro. The Adriatic coast, while nominally part of the NDH, was actually controlled by the Italians until 1943.

The NDH took over a large portion of the Yugoslavian territories. [Wiki]

Formation of the NDH Air Force

Following the collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, NDH began organizing its newly-created armed forces. Its Air Force was created on the 19th of April, 1941. The leadership of the new Air Force was given to Colonel Vladimir Kren. Immediately, work began on creating adequate structural organization, acquiring manpower, and procuring equipment. Initially, plans for arming this Air Force were ambitious, including some 140 modern aircraft, such as the Ju 88 and Me 109. Its officials were quite disappointed as Germans were not willing to provide these. Instead, the NDH officials had to make do with the leftovers of the Former Royal Yugoslav Air Force, which was in German hands. NDH officials made a request that included over 50 aircraft. The Germans once again disappointed them and gave NDH only those aircraft that were mostly obsolete, while transferring the better aircraft, like the Hurricanes, to Romania instead. The only other way to acquire more capable aircraft was to ask the Italians. This is what the NDH Air Force officials did in early 1942.

The NDH Air Force was initially equipped with surviving Yugoslavian aircraft, in this case, Rogožarski P.V.T. [The Croatian Air Force In The Second World War]

The Fiat G.50 brief history

During the thirties, the Italian Ministry of Aviation (Ministero dell Aeronautica) was interested in adopting a new, all-metal monoplane fighter and ground-attack aircraft for the Italian Air Force. In April of 1935, engineer Giuseppe Gabrielli began working on a new low-wing, all-metal plane named G.50. On 28th September 1935, Gabrielli submitted his project to the Ministry of Aviation. Military officials were impressed by the design and asked him to proceed with its work. As Fiat’s production capacities were overburdened, work on this new project was instead moved to the CMASA works at Marina di Pisa, part of Fiat since 1931. Giuseppe Gabrielli was finishing his last drawings and the list of needed materials and equipment in June 1936.

The prototype was finally ready at the beginning of 1937 and was transported to the city of Turin for further testing. This prototype, under registration number MM 334, made its first test flight on 26th February 1937. Once accepted for service, the Fiat G.50 would become the first Italian all-metal fighter. Between 1938 to 1943 some 774 to 791 of all versions of the G. 50 would be built. These saw combat service starting from the Spanish Civil War, until 1943 when the few surviving aircraft were reassigned to secondary roles.

A G.50 flying together with a German Bf-110, possibly during the Battle of Britain. [Wiki]

In Yugoslavia

The Fiat G. 50 participated during the short Invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941. Two fighter groups, the 24th, and 154th, which had 53 G.50 fighters in total were allocated for this operation. They mostly performed a few escort missions. Due to the rapid collapse of Yugoslavia’s Royal Army, these saw limited actual combat use, if any. Afterward, the Fiat G.50 was allocated to other fronts. During 1942 and 1943, limited numbers of these aircraft were used for ground attack operations against the Yugoslavian Partisans.

In NDH’s Hands

By 1942, most of the available aircraft in NDH Air Force were in poor condition, mostly due to a general lack of spare parts. NDH Army officials approached Italy with a request for 9 improved Fiat G.50 and one two-seater version. The Fiat G.50bis were slightly modified versions that had an increased fuel load, a redesigned rear fuselage and vertical stabilizer, better glazing of the cockpit, and other minor changes. But in essence, it did not offer many improvements compared to the basic version. The G.50 B bipost (two-seater) was a modified G.50 fighter version with a new cockpit and dual controls for a pilot and trainer. The front section of the cockpit was fully enclosed, in contrast with the rear which was open. The main armament was removed on the G.50 B. This version was very successful, as it was easy to build and offered almost the same flying performance as the single-seat version.

The Fiat G.50 B version with a longer cockpit design for the instructor and the student. [alieuomini.it]
A group of six NDH pilots was sent to the Fiat company in Torino for training in January 1942. The entire acquisition process of new aircraft took several months to complete. The 9 Fiat G.50bis (serial number MM.6178 to 6186) were finally allocated to the NDH. These arrived in Croatia in April 1942. The Fiat G.50B two-seater took even more time to be delivered, arriving in late June 1942. These would be stationed on the Borongaj airfield near Zagreb. Initially, these were used for pilot training. Due to the poor condition of the airfield, two were lightly damaged during landing.

The Fiat G.50bis in NDH service. [asisbiz.com]
For the necessary pilot training, one modified Fiat G.50B two-seater was also acquired. [The Croatian Air Force In The Second World War]

Combat Use

Almost from the start, the new NDH regime began the persecution of all non-Croatian citizens. The Serbian, Roma, and Jewish populations were especially targeted, with numerous atrocities and arrests. Croatians who did not agree with this regime were also persecuted. In response to the NDH’s actions against Yugoslavian civilians, resistance movements began to emerge on its territory. Their Air Force was used in various roles during this time, but due to generally obsolescence of equipment, their impact would be quite limited.

The acquisition of more aircraft like the Fiat G.50 offered a slight increase in its offensive capabilities. Once in service, these received new registration numbers ranging from 2501 to 2509. The single Fiat G.50B received the 3510 designations. In July, five would be allocated to the Rajlovac airfield near Sarajevo. In September three were moved to the Banja Luka to be part of the 16th squadron.

After April 1943 most were pulled back to Zagreb where they were attached to the 1st Squadron. When Italy capitulated to the Allies, all warring parties in Yugoslavia rushed in to take over the abandoned Italian weapons, armored vehicles, and a few remaining aircraft. At Zadar airfield, there were six Fiat G.50 aircraft. These would be captured by the NDH forces. Three of them received 5686, 5956, and 5186 designations. The newly acquired fighters were primarily positioned at Kurilovac and Velika Gorica airfields.

By 1944 it was becoming obvious that the Axis would lose the war, as a result many soldiers and pilots from the NDH Army and Air Force tried to escape to the Partisans. On the 2nd of September 1944, air force pilot Andrija Arapović with a Fiat G.50 (reg. Num. 3505) escaped to the island of Vis, under the control of the Yugoslav communist Partisans. Partisan forces put the captured G.50 to use during the war and it would remain in service up to 1946. An interesting fact about Andrija Arapović’s G.50 aircraft is that it still exists today and can be seen in the Belgrade Military Aviation museum near the Nikola Tesla Airport in Serbia. This is the only surviving example of a G.50 in the world. Another Fiat G.50 escaped joining the Allies in Italy.

The Fiat G.50bis was piloted by pilot Andrija Arapović. On the 2nd of September 1944, he fled to the Partisan side. [The Croatian Air Force In The Second World War]
By this point the Allies had achieved almost complete air supremacy over southern Eastern Europe, thus flying the slower Fiat G.50 became quite dangerous. In April 1944 several NDH aircraft, including two Fiat G.50, were destroyed in an Allied bombing run on Borongaj. Due to their obsolescence, even the NDH’s best fighters could do little against Allied bombers. In addition, the chronic lack of fuel led to a reduction in combat flights. By mid-September 1944, only 7 aircraft were listed as operational. In October most were allocated to the 2nd Squadron, which was also equipped with MS 406 fighters. When the Partisans liberated Zagreb, some 9 aircraft in various conditions would be captured. Some would be put to use after the war, but their use would be limited.  These would be removed from service by the 1st of April 1946.

The Fiat G.50bis were often used to protect Zagreb but could do little against more modern Allied bombers. [The Croatian Air Force In The Second World War]

Technical Characteristics 

In NDH service no known modifications were made on the Fiat G. 50. The G.50 was a single-seat, low-wing, all-metal fighter plane. The main fuselage was made from four angular-shaped longerons. The wing construction consisted of a center section which was made of a steel tube connected to the lower fuselage and two metal spars connected with ribs. The fuselage, wing, and tail were covered with duralumin sheets. The only fabric-covered parts were the movable control surfaces in the wings and the tail. It was powered by the 840 hp (626 kW) Fiat A 74 RC 38, a 14-cylinder radial piston engine. An all-metal three-blade propeller produced by Fiat was used.

The G.50 was equipped, like most modern aircraft of the time, with inward retracting landing gear, but the rear tail wheel was fixed. In later improved versions, the rear tail wheel was changed to a retractable type.

The main armament consisted of two forward-firing 12.7mm Breda-SAFAT heavy machine guns, with some 150 rounds of ammunition for each machine gun. The guns were placed behind the upper engine cowl and were synchronized in order not to damage the propeller.

Conclusion

The Fiat G.50 was one of few modern fighters available for NDH service. Their use would be greatly hampered by ever-increasing Allied Air supremacy, lack of fuel, and fear of their pilots defecting. Despite being acquired in relatively small numbers many of them would survive the war albeit in poor condition, while some would see a few more years of service by the newly created Yugoslav Air Force.

Fiat G.50 Specifications
Wingspan 10.9 m / 35 ft 11 in
Length 8 m / 26 ft  3 in
Height 3.28 m / 10 ft 7 in
Wing Area 18.25 m² / 196.5 ft²
Engine One 840 hp (626 kW) Fiat A.74 RC.38, 14 cylinder radial piston
Empty Weight 1,975 kg / 4,350 lbs
Maximum Takeoff Weight 2,415 kg / 5,324 lbs
Fuel Capacity 316 l
Maximum Speed 470 km/h / 292 mph
Range 445 km / 267 mi
Maximum Service Ceiling 10,700 m / 35,100 ft
Climb speed Climb to 6,000 m (19,700 ft) in 7 minutes and 30 seconds
Crew One pilot
Armament
  • Two 12.7 mm Breda-SAFAT heavy machine guns

Credits

  • Written by Marko P.
  • Edited by Henry H. & Ed J.
  • Illustrated by Haryo Panji

Sources:

  • D. Nešić (2008), Naoružanje Drugog Svetsko Rata-Italija, Beograd.
  • G. Cattaneo, The Fiat G.50, Profile Publications number 188
  • P. Verganano (1997), Fiat G.50,, La Bancarella Aeronautica – Torino.
  • D. Monday (1984, 2006), The Hamlyn Concise Guide To Axis Aircraft Of World War II, Aerospace Publishing Ltd.
  • V. V. Mikić, (2000) Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske 1941-1945, Vojno  istorijski institut Vojske Jugoslavije.
  • T. Likso and Danko Č. (1998) The Croatian Air Force In The Second World War, Nacionalna Sveučilišna Zagreb.
  • I. Černiševski (2012) Maketar Plus, IPMS Srbija